1.
President of Mexico
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The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote
2.
Convention of Aguascalientes
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General Victoriano Huerta, who had usurped the presidency in a coup détat in February 1913, resigned the office in July 1914 on account of revolutionary pressures and left the country. He was replaced by Venustiano Carranza, who wished to discuss his governments policies with the revolutionary leaders. Thus Carranza called for the Convention to take place, however, faced with the absence of the Zapatistas and the refusal of Francisco Villa to attend a meeting in Mexico City, it was agreed to relocate the Convention to Aguascalientes. A question that the factions had to settle in advance of the convention was whether participants would only be revolutionary military men or could include civilians as well. Carranza had a large and strong backing, and argued for their inclusion. Tensions were already high between Carranza and Villa, his former ally, although Zapata had not openly sided with Villa initially, he was hostile to Carranza, with Carranza returning the feeling. Cumberland, The southerners had never liked Carranza and his pretensions, from the onset, however, the Convention was dominated by the Villistas, who imposed their points of view on the other delegates. The supporters of Emiliano Zapata did not arrive until 26 October, when the Convention first met on October 10,1914, it declared itself sovereign, which meant that it was a deliberative body, not a consultative one. Carranza rejected the notion of sovereignty and did not himself attend the convention or send representatives, Zapata had not yet arrived and the delegates made the decision to not conclude any major business until he and his advisers attended. Zapata arrived with an entourage of men with military titles, there was a plan to merge revolutionary armies into a single military, which would have structurally taken the place of the Federal Army that ceased to exist with the fall of the Huerta regime. The convention elected General Eulalio Gutiérrez Ortiz as President of Republic for the term of 20 days. It appointed Villa commander of the Conventionalist Army, which took up arms against Carranzas Constitutionalist Army. Due to the disagreements that Carranza had with Zapata and Villa, after the meeting, the newly reconciled Villa and Zapata entered Mexico City on 6 December, at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Carranza and his supporters retreated to Veracruz. Subsequently, Zapata returned to his stronghold in Morelos, so that the alliance with Villa was largely in principle only, General A collection of original documents from the Convention of Aguascalientes can be found at Documentos de la Convención de Aguascalientes on Wikisource Barrera Fuentes, Florencio. Crónicas y debates de las sesiones de la soberana Convención Revolucionaria, sánchez Lamego, Miguel A. Historia militar de la revolución en la época de la Convención. Mexico City, Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de la Revolución Mexicana, de la junta a la Convención Soberana, in, Así fue la Revolución Mexicana. Mexico City, Secretaría de Educación Pública
3.
Ramos Arizpe
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Ramos Arizpe is a city and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Coahuila. Ramos Arizpe is located 11 km from the capital of Saltillo. It is part of the Saltillo metropolitan area, the city reported a population of 48,228 in the 2005 census, the municipality had a population of 56,708. Ramos Arizpe was established originally in 1577 as Valle de las Labores, in the year 1606 the town was renamed Valle de San Nicolás de la Capellanía, because Spanish missionaries had taken there a sacred image of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino. It is now an industrial center, founded in 1974. As of 2016 the plant produces one third of the firms full-sized pickups. Plan de Guadalupe International Airport serving Saltillo and Ramos Arizpe is located there, winters are mild with warm temperatures during the day and cold nights. The January average temperature is 11.9 °C. On average, temperatures drop below freezing on 18 days per year, precipitation is low during the winter months and many days are clear and sunny, averaging 20-22 clear days from December to March. Summers are warm to hot with the warmest month being June and July, temperatures frequently exceed 30 °C and occasionally 40.0 °C during the summer months. Most of the precipitation that Ramos Arizpe receives falls during the summer months, on average, Ramoz Arizpe receives 245.6 millimetres of precipitation per year and there are 37 days with measureable precipitation. The wettest record month was June 1990 with 385 millimetres and the wettest day record was 28 June 2007 with 166 millimetres, historical landmarks are Don Miguel Ramos Arizpes house, father of Mexican federalism, Hacienda Santa María built in 1721, where Fr. Miguel Hidalgo conducted his final mass, and Hacienda de Guadalupe, where the Plan de Guadalupe was signed during the Mexican Revolution in 1913
4.
Coahuila
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The state is located in Northeastern Mexico on the US border. Coahuila borders the Mexican states of Nuevo León to the east, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí to the south, and Durango and Chihuahua to the west. To the north, Coahuila accounts for a 512 kilometres stretch of the Mexico–United States border, with an area of 151,563 square kilometres, it is the nations third-largest state. In 2010, Coahuilas population is 2,748,391 inhabitants, the Spanish explored the north of Mexico some decades after their victory in Tenochtiitlán the capital of the Aztecs. Such exploration was delayed because the climate was harsher and there was no gold. The first Spanish settlement in the now called Coahuila was at Minas de la Trinidad in 1577. Saltillo was settled in 1586, to part of the province of Nueva Vizcaya of the Vice-royalty of New Spain. Later it became one of the first provinces of Nueva Extremadura to be explored by Europeans, Coahuila and Texas was one of the constituent states of the newly independent United Mexican States under their 1824 Constitution, and included Texas, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Later in the same year Nuevo León was detached, but Texas remained a part of the state until 1836, Monclova was the capital of the state from 1833 to 1835. In 1840 Coahuila briefly became a member of the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande, on February 19,1856, Santiago Vidaurri annexed Coahuila to his state, Nuevo León, but it regained its separate status in 1868. During the Mexican Revolution, Francisco Villa attacked the city of Torreón, on April 4,2004, the border city of Piedras Negras was flooded. More than 30 people died and more than 4,000 lost their homes, in 2007 Coahuila became the first state in Mexico to offer civil unions to same-sex couples. The Sierra Madre Oriental runs northwest to southeast through the State, the northernmost fingers of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen, reach to the border with the United States at the Rio Grande. East of the range, the land slopes gently toward the Rio Grande, and is drained by rivers, including the Salado and its tributary. The Tamaulipan mezquital, a dry shrubland ecoregion, occupies the portion of the State. The portion of the State west of the Sierra Madre Oriental lies on the Mexican Plateau, the Bolsón de Mapimí is a large endorheic basin which covers much of the western portion of the State and extends into adjacent portions of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. The Nazas River, which flows east from Durango, and the Aguanaval River, Torreón, the most populous city in the State, lies on the Nazas in the irrigated Laguna Region, the, which straddles the border of Coahuila and Durango. Maderas del Carmen lies on the border of the State
5.
Saltillo
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Saltillo is the capital and largest city of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila and the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name. The city is located about 258 kilometres west of the Texas border, as of the 2005 census, Saltillo had a population of 725,095 people. 823,098 people reside within the area, making it the 19th biggest metro area in the country. The metro area comprises the municipalities of Saltillo, Ramos Arizpe, founded in 1577 by Conquistador Alberto del Canto and Spanish colonists, Saltillo is the oldest post-conquest settlement in northern Mexico. Saltillo was a commercial center on the northern frontier which served as a bridge from central Mexico to regions farther northeast, Nuevo León, Nuevo Santander, Coahuila. Saltillo supplied the mines of Zacatecas with wheat. It never rose to prominence, but it did develop a commercial core. Saltillo became administratively more important at the end of the eighteenth century, merchants, most of whom were Iberian-born peninsular Spaniards, constituted the most important economic group, handling a wide variety of goods and sold in shops. They were the branch of the transatlantic merchant sector, with ties to Mexico City merchants. Peninsular merchants in Saltillo married into local society, acquired rural properties. In the late century, an annual trade fair was established, with goods from as far away as China and Europe. Saltillo could produce wheat commercially so long as enterprises had access to water, in the eighteenth century, there was a demand for draft animals, which Saltillo could supply. The city of Saltillo is the seat of the municipality of Saltillo. The current Mayor is Isidro Lopez Villareal from the Partido Accion Nacional, el Cerro del Pueblo and its 4-metre cross overlook the city. The citys elevation, at 1,600 metres, makes it cooler and windier than the city of Monterrey. Saltillo lies near the city of Arteaga and in the Chihuahuan Desert, the city is flanked by the Zapalinamé mountains, which are part of the Sierra Madre Oriental. By looking at the relief of the mountains, one can see, according to local legend, Saltillo is located in the Chihuahuan Desert but temperatures are cooler than other desert cities in Mexico because it is located in an altitude of 1,600 meters. Summers are slightly hot with cool nights, and winters are sunny, rainfall is scarce but more prominent in summer
6.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
7.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
8.
Victoriano Huerta
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José Victoriano Huerta Márquez was a Mexican military officer and 35th President of Mexico. After a military career under President Porfirio Díaz, Huerta became an officer under pro-democracy President Francisco Madero during the first phase of the Mexican Revolution. This manoeuver is called La Decena Tragica, the Ten Tragic Days, while attempting to intrigue with German spies in the United States during World War I, Huerta was arrested in 1915 and died in U. S. custody. Huertas supporters were known as Huertistas during the Mexican Revolution, Huerta is still vilified by modern-day Mexicans, who generally refer to him as El Chacal or El Usurpador. Victoriano Huerta was born in the settlement of Agua Gorda within the municipality of Colotlán, Jalisco, son of Jesús Huerta and he identified himself as indigenous, and both his parents are reported to have been ethnically Huichol, although his father is said to have been Mestizo. Huerta learned to read and write at a run by the local priest. Huerta had decided upon a military career early on as the way of escaping the poverty of Colotlán. In 1869 he was employed by the visiting General Donato Guerra to serve as his personal secretary, in that role, he distinguished himself and with General Guerras support, Huerta gained admission to the Mexican National Military Academy at Chapultepec in Mexico City in 1872. As a cadet, Huerta excelled at math, leading him to specialize in artillery, President Benito Juárez praised Cadet Huerta when inspecting the Academy, noting that the Army needed officers of indigenous origins. Upon graduating from the academy in 1877, Huerta was commissioned into the Corps of Engineers. After entering the Mexican Army as a lieutenant in the engineers in 1877, Huerta was put in charge of improving the the Loreto and Guadalupe forts in Puebla and the Castle of Perote in Veracruz. In January 1879, Huerta was promoted to Captain and assigned to the staff of the 4th Division in Guadalajara in charge of engineering, the commander of the 4th Division was General Manual González, a close associate of President Porfirio Díaz, the dictator of Mexico. In 1880, Díaz stepped back from the limelight, turning over the presidency to González before turning to office in 1884, in the interim, Huertas career prospered thanks to the patronage of González. Huerta married Emilia Águila Moya, whom he met in Veracruz, the names of his children surviving him in 1916 were Jorge, María Elisa, Victor, Luz, Elena, Dagoberto, Eva and Celia. Huerta participated in the campaigns in Tepic and Sinaloa, where he distinguished himself in combat. Huerta was known for ensuring that his men always got paid, Huerta then spent nine years of his military career undertaking topographic studies in the states of Puebla and Veracruz. He traveled extensively to all parts of Mexico in this position, french cultural influence was very strong in 19th century Mexico, and Huertas hero was Napoleon. Huerta supported General Díaz as the closest approximation to his Napoleonic ideal, by 1890, Huerta had reached the rank of Colonel of Engineers, under the administration of Porfirio Díaz
9.
Venustiano Carranza
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He secured power in Mexico, serving as head of state 1915-1917. With the promulgation of a new revolutionary Mexican Constitution of 1917, he was elected president, known as the Primer Jefe or First Chief of the Constitutionalists, Carranza was a shrewd politician rather than a military man. Maderos challenge to the Díaz regime in the 1910 elections and Maderos Plan de San Luis Potosí to nullify the elections and he was appointed governor of his home state of Coahuila by Madero. When Madero was murdered in February 1913, Carranza drew up the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza became the leader of northern forces opposed to Huerta. He went on to lead the Constitutionalist faction to victory and become president of Mexico and he was far more conservative than either Southern peasant leader Emiliano Zapata or Northern revolutionary general Pancho Villa. Once firmly in power in Mexico, Carranza sought to eliminate his political rivals, Carranza won recognition from the United States, but took strongly nationalist positions. During his administration, the current constitution of Mexico was drafted and adopted, in the 1920 election, in which he could not succeed himself, he attempted to impose a virtually unknown, civilian politician, Ignacio Bonillas, as president of Mexico. Northern generals, who held power, rose up against Carranza under the Plan of Agua Prieta. Carranza was born in the town of Cuatro Ciénegas, in the state of Coahuila, in 1859, to an upper middle-class cattle-ranching family. His father, Jesús Carranza Neira, had been a rancher and mule driver until the time of the Reform War, in which he fought against the Indians, during the Franco-Mexican War, Jesús Carranza became a colonel and was Benito Juárezs main contact in Coahuila. There was a personal connection between the two, with Carranza lending Juárez money while Juárez was in exile. Following the ouster of the French, Juárez rewarded Carranza with land, because of his familys wealth, Venustiano, the eleventh of fifteen children, was able to attend excellent schools in Saltillo and Mexico City. Venustiano studied at the Ateneo Fuente, a famous Liberal school in Saltillo, in 1874, he went to the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria in Mexico City, where he had aspirations to be a doctor. Díazs troops defeated Lerdos, and Díaz and his armies marched into Mexico City in triumph, upon completion of his studies, Carranza returned to Coahuila to raise cattle, since he had an eye disease that prevented him becoming a doctor. He married Virginia Salinas in 1882, and the couple had two daughters, the Carranzas had high ambitions for Venustiano, who would use the family money to advance his political career. In 1887, at age 28, he became president of Cuatro Ciénegas. Carranza remained a Liberal who idolized Benito Juárez, at the same time, he grew disillusioned with the increasingly authoritarian character of the rule of Porfirio Díaz during this period. In 1893,300 Coahuila ranchers organized a resistance to oppose the re-election of Porfirio Díazs supporter José María Garza Galán as Governor of Coahuila
10.
Pancho Villa
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Francisco Pancho Villa was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution. As commander of the División del Norte in the Constitutionalist Army, given the areas size and mineral wealth, it provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914, Villa can be credited with decisive military victories leading to the ousting of Victoriano Huerta from the presidency in July 1914. Villa then fought his erstwhile leader in the coalition against Huerta, Villa was in alliance with southern revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who remained fighting in his own region of Morelos. The two revolutionary generals briefly came together to take Mexico City after Carranzas forces retreated from it, later, Villas heretofore undefeated División del Norte engaged the military forces of Carranza under Carrancista general Álvaro Obregón and was defeated in the 1915 Battle of Celaya. Villa was again defeated by Carranza,1 November 1915, at the Second Battle of Agua Prieta 1 November 1915, after which Villas army collapsed as a significant military force. Villa subsequently led a hit and run raid against the small U. S. -Mexican border town in the Battle of Columbus 9 March 1916, the U. S. government sent U. S. Army General John J. In 1923, as elections approached, he re-involved himself in Mexican politics. Shortly thereafter he was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón, after his death, he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during the Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villas exclusion from the narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos, movies about his life, in 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in a huge public ceremony not attended by his widow Luz Corral. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life, according to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula and he grew up at the Rancho de la Coyotada, one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. The familys residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio, Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, the identity of his real father is still unknown. He wasthe oldest of five children, as a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. He quit school to help his mother after his father died and he became a bandit at some point early on, but also worked as a sharecropper, muleskinner, butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U. S. railway company. However, the veracity of this story is questionable, eventually, he became a member of a bandit band headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits in Durango at the time. As a bandit, he went by the name Arango, in 1902, the rurales, the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz, arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault
11.
Emiliano Zapata
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Cooperating with a number of other peasant leaders he formed the Liberation Army of the South of which he soon became the undisputed leader. Zapatas forces contributed to the fall of Díaz, defeating the Federal Army in the Battle of Cuautla, Madero became president he disavowed the role of the Zapatistas, denouncing them as simple bandits. In November 1911, Zapata promulgated the Plan de Ayala which called for land reforms. Madero sent the Federal Army to root out the Zapatistas in Morelos and this strengthened Zapatas standing among the peasants and Zapata was able to drive the forces of Madero led by Victoriano Huerta out of Morelos. Zapata did not recognize the authority that Carranza asserted as leader of the revolutionary movement, in the aftermath of the revolutionaries victory over Huerta, they attempted to sort out power relations in the Convention of Aguascalientes. Zapata and Villa broke with Carranza, and Mexico descended into civil war among the winners, dismayed with the alliance with Villa, Zapata focused his energies on rebuilding society in Morelos which he now controlled, instituting the land reforms of the Plan de Ayala. Zapata once again retook Morelos in 1917 and held most of the state against Carranzas troops until he was killed in an ambush in April 1919, after his death Zapatista generals aligned with Obregón against Carranza and helped drive Carranza from power. In 1920, Zapatistas managed to obtain powerful posts in the governance of Morelos after Carranzas fall and they instituted many of the land reforms envisioned by Zapata in Morelos. Zapata remains a figure in Mexico, used both as a nationalist symbol as well as a symbol of the neo-Zapatista movement. Zapatas family were Mexicans of Nahua and Spanish ancestry, that is mestizos, Emiliano was the ninth of ten children, his older brother Eufemio Zapata is also figure in Morelos history. From a family of farmers, Emiliano Zapata had insight into the difficulties of the countryside. He received an education from his teacher, Emilio Vara. At the age of 16 or 17, Zapata had to care for his following his fathers death. He was a horseman and competed in rodeos and races. These skills as a horseman brought him work as a trainer of Porfirio Díazs son-in-law, who had an hacienda nearby. In an undated studio photo, Zapata is dressed in a business suit and tie. Around the turn of the 20th century Anenecuilco was mixed Spanish-speaking mestizo and it had a long history of protesting the local haciendas taking community members land and its leaders gathered colonial-era documentation of their land titles to prove their claims. Some of the documentation was in Nahuatl, with contemporary translations to Spanish for use in legal cases in the Spanish courts
12.
Zacatecas
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Zacatecas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Zacatecas, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and its capital city is Zacatecas City, Zacatecas is located in North-Central Mexico. The state is best known for its deposits of silver and other minerals, its colonial architecture. Its main economic activities are mining, agriculture and tourism, Zacatecas is located in the center-north of Mexico, and covers an area of 75, 284km2, the tenth largest state in the country. It borders the states of Jalisco, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosí, Coahuila and Durango and is divided into fifty eight municipalities and 4,882, towns, cities and other communities. The state has an altitude of 2230 meters above sea level. The state has three geographical regions, the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west, the Mexican Plateau. Most of it is in the Sierra Madre Occidental with highly rugged with peaks of over 2,500 meters above sea level, the mountains of the southeast and northeast are lower but there large valleys such as the Juchipila and Tlaltenango. Most of the territory has only small mesas and other areas of flat land, in the center of the state, there is a small mountain chain called the Sierra de Fresnillo, from which much of the state’s mineral wealth comes from. In the extreme northwest, there is another important mountain chain called the Sierra de Sombrerete, marked by a mountain called Sombreretillo, near this chain is another called the Sierra de Órganos. No major rivers run through the state and most of the run only during the rainy season. The state belongs to two basins, the south east of the state belongs to the Lerma River basin, which eventually empties in the Pacific Ocean. Rivers belonging to this include the San Pedro, Juchipila, Jerez. The other basin is smaller and endorheic, and does not empty into any ocean, the state has eighty dams with a total capacity of 595,337 million cubic meters. The largest of these are the Leobardo Reynoso in Fresnillo, Miguel Aleman in Tlaltenango, much of the state’s water is underground divided into twenty hydraulic zones. These are accesses with over 5,800 wells mostly for agricultural use, most of the territory has a cool, dry climate, although areas in the south have more moisture, with most rain falling between June and September. The driest and coldest areas are in the northeast, known as the Salado because of its saltwater lakes, 75% of the state is arid or semi arid. 14% is arable and 79% is apt for the grazing of livestock, the average annual temperature is 16C with most of the state being temperate
13.
Mexican Liberal Party
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The Mexican Liberal Party was started in August 1900 when Ingeniero Camilo Arriaga published a manifesto entitled Invitacion al Partido Liberal. The invitation was addressed to Mexican liberals who were dissatisfied with the way the Porfirio Díaz government was deviating from the liberal Constitution of 1857, Arriaga called on Mexican liberals to form local liberal clubs, which would then send delegates to a liberal convention. The first Mexican Liberal Party Convention was held in San Luis Potosí in February 1901, fifty local clubs from thirteen states sent 56 delegates. The Convention delegates affirmed their liberal beliefs in free speech, free press and they objected to the close workings of the Diaz government and the Catholic Church. Ricardo Flores Magón attended the first Convention as a reporter for his newspaper Regeneración and he afterwards published an editorial in favorable support of the aims and aspirations. In April 1901, the new Mexican Liberal Party opened a branch in Mexico City, always a bit more radical than most members, Flores Magón was forced into exile in January 1904. Finally settling in San Antonio, Texas, Flores Magón called for members of the Liberal Party to follow him in a new organization. In September 1905, the liberals, led by Flores Magón. This organization would be separate from the Liberal Party, and it would seek to coordinate the violent overthrow of the Díaz government, the MLP was involved in strikes and uprisings in Mexico from 1906 to 1911. The party controlled the part of Baja California in 1911, including Tijuana, Mexicali. In August 1911 part of the MLP militants, including Juan Sarabia, Jesús Flores Magón and Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama split from the organization, the MLP was supported from exile in Texas by the feminist writer Andrea Villarreal
14.
Francisco I. Madero
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Francisco Indalesio Madero González was a Mexican statesman, writer, and revolutionary who served as the 33rd president of Mexico from 1911 until his assassination in 1913. He was an advocate for justice and democracy. Madero was notable for having challenged Mexican President Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910, born into an extremely wealthy landowning family in northern Mexico, Madero was an unusual politician, who until he ran for president in the 1910 elections, had never held office. In his 1908 book entitled The Presidential Succession in 1910, Madero called on voters to prevent the sixth reelection of Porfirio Díaz and his vision would lay the foundation for a democratic, 20th-century Mexico, but without polarizing the social classes. To that effect, he bankrolled the Anti-Reelectionist Party and urged Mexicans to rise up against Díaz, following the resignation of Díaz from the presidency on 25 May 1911 after the signing of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Madero became the highest political leader of the country. Known as Maderistas, Maderos followers referred to him as the de la Revolución. He was elected president on 15 October 1911 by almost 90% of the vote, sworn into office on 6 November 1911, he became one of Mexicos youngest elected presidents having just turned 38. Despite considerable popularity amongst the people, Maderos administration soon encountered opposition both from more radical revolutionaries and from remnants of the former regime, in February 1913, a military coup took place in the Mexican capital led by General Victoriano Huerta, the military commander of the city. Madero was arrested and a time later assassinated along with his Vice-President, José María Pino Suárez on 22 February 1913. He was born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila, the first son of Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño and he was sickly as a child, and was small in stature as an adult. It is widely believed that Maderos middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, civil War and built a diversified fortune. For many years, the family prospered during Porfirio Díazs regime, Evaristo married twice and had 14 children who lived to adulthood, including Francisco I. Madero, Sr. father of the future president, thus, young Francisco was a member of a huge and powerful northern Mexican family which had long-standing issues with the Díaz regime. Francisco and his brother Gustavo A. Madero were educated at the Jesuit college in Saltillo, instead, his fathers subscription to the magazine Revue Spirite awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism. As a young man, Maderos father sent him to the École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris. During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism and he then attended high school at Culver Academies. Following business school, Madero traveled to the University of California, Berkeley to study agricultural techniques, during his time there, he was influenced by the Theosophist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University. In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of the Madero familys hacienda at San Pedro, well traveled and well educated, he was now in robust health
15.
States of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence
16.
National Palace (Mexico)
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The National Palace is the seat of the federal executive in Mexico. It is located on Mexico Citys main square, the Plaza de la Constitución and this site has been a palace for the ruling class of Mexico since the Aztec empire, and much of the current palaces building materials are from the original one that belonged to Moctezuma II. Used and classified as a Government Building, the National Palace, with its red tezontle facade, fills the entire east side of the Zócalo and it is home to some of the offices of both the Federal Treasury and the National Archives. The facade is bordered on the north and south by two towers and include three main doorways, each of which lead to a different part of the building, the southern door leads to the Patio of Honor and presidential offices. The northern door is known as the Mariana Door, named in honor of Mariano Arista who had it constructed in 1850, the area next to this door used to be the old Court Prison, with courtrooms and torture chambers. It is now occupied by the Finance Ministry and it contains the Treasury Room, constructed by architects Manuel Ortiz Monasterio and Vicente Mendiola. The iron and bronze door is the work of Augusto Petriccioli, part of this ceremony includes ringing the bell that hangs above the balcony. This bell is the one that Father Miguel Hidalgo rang to call for rebellion against Spain. It originally hung in the church of Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, in the niche containing the bell, there is the Mexican coat of arms. On each side there is an Aztec eagle knight and his Spanish counterpart and these were sculpted by Manuel Centurion and symbolize the synthesis of Mexican culture and Spanish culture. The central door leads to the patio which is surrounded by Baroque arches. Only the balustrade of this area has been remodeled, conserving the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn the main stairwell, in the stairwell is a mural depicting the The History of Mexico from 1521 to 1930, and covers an area of 450 m2. These murals were painted between 1929 and 1935, jointly titled The Epic of the Mexican People, the work is divided like a triptych with each being somewhat autonomous. The right-hand wall contains murals depicting pre-Hispanic Mexico and centers around the life of the Aztec god Quetzalcóatl, Quetzalcóatl appears in the mural as a star, a god, and a human being. Created by serpents, he sails through space as a star that accompanies the sun at night, Quetzalcóatl then assumes a human body to teach the Aztec people as their king and patriarch. Last, when he sacrifices his blood to give life to men, once he leaves the earth, Quetzalcóatl assumes the shape the morning star, called Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. The cycle that he undergoes signifies the cycle of life. Riveras creation of a Mexican identity helps to continue the reform began with the Mexican Revolution of 1910
17.
Lucio Blanco
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Lucio Blanco was a Mexican military officer, noteworthy for his participation in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 to 1920. Lucio Blanco was born on July 21,1879 in Nadadores and he is noted for three major accomplishments. In August 1913, he became the first revolutionary to distribute land to the peasantry. In late 1914, he was the force of the moderate generals who wished to bring peace between the victorious Constitutional factions who began quarreling among themselves. His efforts resulted in the Convention of Aguascalientes in October 1914, lucio Blanco was the son of Bernardo Blanco, and Maria Fuentes, prominent landowners. He attended primary school in Muzquiz, Coahuila, and secondary school in the capital of Saltillo. He also spent several months in Texas, studying English and he finished his secondary schooling in Monterrey. At the age of twenty, he entered a college in Torreón. He did not graduate, but returned home to manage this property in Muzquiz. Because of family connections, Blanco became a supporter of Francisco Madero, Blanco also became a supporter of the well-known anarchist Ricardo Flores Magón, and in 1906, attempted to join a Flores Magón rebellion. He was dissuaded however, and returned home, in 1909, he joined the Anti-Reelection Party of Francisco Madero and became active in organizing political rallies. He associated himself with Jesús Carranza, brother of Venustiano Carranza, with the conclusion of hostilities in May 1911, Blanco took a position within the Ministry of Interior of the interim government. Blanco had political disagreements with the Minister of Interior, and so he left the capital, at this time, Venustiano Carranza was the Maderist governor of Coahuila, and he advised Blanco to join the State militia. In early 1912, General Pascual Orozco revolted against the Madero government, despite having no military training, Blanco impressed his superiors, and by the time hostilities ended in the summer of 1912, Blanco had been promoted to captain. In February 1913, a conservative coup d’état removed Francisco Madero as President, Governor Carranza of Coahuila elected not to support this new government, and organized a resistance. Lucio Blanco was a supporter of this revolt, and he received a commission as colonel in the Constitutional Forces. Initially, Governor Carranza attempted to lead his revolt in the field, early successes in this revolt came not from forces under Carranza’s direct command, but other forces in Sonora and Chihuahua. In April 1913, Blanco had his first battlefield victory when he took the city of Aldamas, Tamaulipas, by the end of the month, he controlled a substantial portion of the country side of the state of Tamaulipas
18.
Manuel Palafox
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Manuel Palafox was a Mexican politician, soldier and intellectual. Palafox studied in Puebla, his city of birth, and became an entrepreneur, in 1911, he joined the Liberation Army of the South of Emiliano Zapata, initially to defend his home. He ascended the ranks and in 1914 became Zapatas most important advisor and he led the negotiations with the Constitutional Army of Venustiano Carranza, which failed due to the obstinacy of the latter. The Zapatistas took the side of Pancho Villa at the Aguascalientes Convention, Palafox became minister of agriculture in the Gutiérrez cabinet. He allowed land partitionings and ensured that land that had been seized, Palafox, as an urban intellectual, was never popular with the Zapatistas and according to them too fond of shady intrigues. After he was dismissed as a minister in 1915, he attempted to negotiate with Carranza, later he was the victim of a rumor about his sexuality which led to Zapata to nearly have him shot—however he instead transferred him to Tochimilco under Magana. In 1920, he took the amnesty offered by Carranza for former Zapatistas, in 1932, he ran unsuccessfully for the governor of Puebla, after which he withdrew himself from public life. Manuel Palafox at the Nevada Observer
19.
Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
22.
Guadalupe Victoria
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He was a deputy in the Mexican Chamber of Deputies for Durango and a member of the Supreme Executive Power following the downfall of the First Mexican Empire. After the adoption of the Constitution of 1824, Victoria was elected as the first President of the United Mexican States, during his term as President he established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, the United States, the Federal Republic of Central America, and Gran Colombia. He also abolished slavery, founded the National Museum, promoted education, Victoria was the only president who completed his full term in more than 30 years of an independent Mexico. He died in 1843 at the age of 56 from epilepsy in the fortress of Perote, on 8 April of the same year, it was decreed that his name would be written in golden letters in the session hall of the Chamber of Deputies. Guadalupe Victoria was born as José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix on 29 September 1786 in Tamazula in the province of Nueva Vizcaya and his parents, who died early in his childhood, were Manuel Fernández and Alejandra Félix. He was baptized by his paternal uncle Agustín Fernández, at time the priest of Tamazula. He studied at the Seminary of Durango, having no resources to pay for food, he made copies of a Latin grammar text to sell to other students for two reales. In 1807, he went to Mexico City, where he enrolled in the college of San Ildefonso to pursue degrees in Canon Law and he studied under a tense atmosphere, because the school was militarized by a colonial order. On 24 April 1811, he submitted his review and graduated as a Bachelor of Laws, in 1812, he joined the insurgent forces of Hermenegildo Galeana and fought alongside José María Morelos at the Siege of Cuautla. He also participated in the assault on Oaxaca and joined the troops of Nicolás Bravo in Veracruz and he dedicated himself and his troops to controlling the passage of El Puente del Rey and became famous for his successful attacks on military convoys until 1815, when he was defeated. The assault of Oaxaca was an action which took place on 25 November 1812 in the city of Oaxaca. Insurgents led by José María Morelos defeated the royalist forces of Lieutenant General Gonzalez Saravia, other members of the insurgent forces that participated in the assault of Oaxaca were Hermenegildo Galeana, Nicolás Bravo, Mariano Matamoros, Manuel Mier y Terán, and Vicente Guerrero. He then swam across the moat and cut the rope of a bridge, due to his success in Oaxaca, by order of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Victoria was granted the command of the insurgent army in Veracruz. At the same time, José Miguel Fernández y Félix decided to change his name to Guadalupe, due his devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe, in 1815, Victoria commanded the insurgent movement in the region of Veracruz. Using guerrilla warfare tactics, he obtained control of Puente del Rey, when he learned that royalist troops were coming to fight, he reinforced the defenses on the bridge, but was still forced to retreat to Nautla in July of that year. In order to have a point of supply from the Gulf of Mexico, Victoria took control of the Boquilla de Piedras, a port located between Tuxpan and the port of Veracruz. This port was fitted with docks, warehouses and batteries for its defense and remained under the control of Victoria until November 1816, shortly after, Naolinco became the headquarters of the insurgents, and from there they controlled the area of Misantla, Puente Nacional and Huatusco. Also in 1816, when the new viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca arrived at New Spain, Victoria attacked his convoy to Mexico City, in late 1816, Victoria held back Nautla, defeating the royalist garrison
23.
Vicente Guerrero
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Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence. He fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century and he was of Afro-Mestizo and Filipino descent, championed the cause of Mexicos common people, and abolished slavery during his brief term as president. His execution in 1831 by the government that ousted him in 1829 was a shock to the nation. Guerrero was tall and robust, and dark complected, and he was at times called El Negro, the region where he grew up had a large concentration of indigenous groups, and as a young man he was more conversant in the local language than Spanish. His fathers family included landlords, rich farmers and traders with broad business connections in the south, members of the Spanish militia and gun, in his youth, he worked for his fathers freight business that used mules for transport. His travels took him to different parts of Mexico where he heard of the ideas of independence, vicentes father, Pedro, supported Spanish rule, whereas his uncle, Diego Guerrero, had an important position in the Spanish militia. As an adult, Vicente was opposed to the Spanish colonial government, mi patria es primero is now the motto of the southern Mexican state of Guerrero, named in honor of the revolutionary. Guerrero enlisted in José María Moreloss insurgent army of the south in December 1810, in 1810 Guerrero joined in the early revolt against Spain, first fighting in the forces of secular priest José María Morelos. Morelos described him as A young man with bronzed, tall and strong, aquiline nose, bright and light-colored eyes, when the War of Independence began, Guerrero was working as a gunsmith in Tixtla. He joined the rebellion in November 1810 and enlisted in a division that independence leader Morelos had organized to fight in southern Mexico. Guerrero distinguished himself in the battle of Izúcar, in February 1812, initial victories by Moreloss forces faltered and Morelos himself was captured and executed in December 1815. Guerrero joined forces with Guadalupe Victoria and Isidoro Montes de Oca, in 1816, the royal government under Viceroy Apodaca sought to end the insurgency, offering amnesty. Guerreros father carried one appeal for his son to surrender, and he remained the only major rebel leader still at large, keeping the rebellion going through an extensive campaign of guerrilla warfare. He won victories at Ajuchitán, Santa Fe, Tetela del Río, Huetamo, Tlalchapa and Cuautlotitlán, hoping to extinguish the rebellion, the royal government sent Agustín de Iturbide against Guerreros forces. Guerrero was victorious against Iturbide, who realized there was a military stalemate, Guerrero appealed to Iturbide to abandon his royalist loyalty and join the fight for independence. Events in Spain had changed in 1820, with Spanish liberals ousting Ferdinand VII, Guerreros appeal to join the forces for independence was successful. Guerrero and Iturbide allied under the Plan de Iguala and their forces merged as the Army of the Three Guarantees. The Plan of Iguala proclaimed independence, called for a monarchy and the continued place of the Roman Catholic Church
24.
Anastasio Bustamante
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Anastasio Bustamante y Oseguera was president of Mexico three times, from 1830 to 1832, from 1837 to 1839 and from 1839 to 1841. He first came to power by leading a coup against president Vicente Guerrero, Bustamante was deposed twice and exiled to Europe each time. Anastasio Bustamantes father, José María, worked hauling snow from the volcanoes of Colima to Guadalajara, at 15, the younger Bustamante entered the Seminary of Guadalajara. When he finished, he went to Mexico City to study medicine and he passed his medical examinations and then went to San Luis Potosí as director of San Juan de Dios Hospital. In 1808, he entered the army as a cavalry officer under the command of Félix María Calleja. In 1810, General Calleja mobilized the army to fight the rebels under Miguel Hidalgo, during the War of Independence, he rose to the rank of general. He supported royalist-turned-insurgent Agustín de Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala, on 19 March 1821, in support of Agustín de Iturbide, Bustamante proclaimed the independence of Mexico from Spain at Pantoja, Guanajuato. A few days later, he removed the remains of the 1811 insurgent leaders from the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato and had buried in San Sebastián cemetery. Iturbide named him commander of the cavalry, second in command of the Army of the Center, the Regency named him field marshal and captain general of the Provincias Internas de Oriente y Occidente, effective 28 September 1821. He fought and defeated a Spanish expeditionary force at Xichú, in December 1828, under the Plan de Perote, Congress named him vice-president of the Republic under President Vicente Guerrero. He took possession of this office on 1 April 1829 but soon was at odds with Guerrero, on 4 December 1829, in accord with the Plan de Jalapa, he rose against Guerrero, driving him from the capital. On 1 January 1830, he assumed the presidency on an interim basis, Congress declared Guerrero incapable of governing. In office, Bustamante removed employees not having the confidence of public opinion and he instituted a secret police force and took steps to suppress the press. He exiled some of his competitors and expelled U. S and he was involved in the kidnapping and execution of his predecessor, Guerrero. He supported industry and the clergy and these and other policies stimulated opposition, especially in the states of Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Texas. In 1832, a revolt broke out in Veracruz, the rebels asked Antonio López de Santa Anna to take command. When their immediate demands were met, they demanded the presidents ouster. They intended to replace him with Manuel Gómez Pedraza, whose 1828 election had been annulled, Bustamante turned over the presidency to Melchor Múzquiz on 14 August 1832 and left the capital to fight the rebels
25.
Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico)
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Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga was a conservative Mexican general and president. He took power easily in a coup détat in 1846 and he was the president at the start of the Mexican–American War. He entered the Spanish colonial army as a cadet on 6 January 1812. He participated in 22 actions in the Mexican War of Independence on the Spanish side and he was arrested for criticizing King Ferdinand VII and sentenced to exile to Spain. However, he escaped imprisonment and remained in Mexico and he joined the Ejército Trigarante, where he participated in another 11 military actions. In June 1821, under the First Mexican Empire, he was made a lieutenant colonel, on 11 February 1823, when he was then in charge of the plaza of Puebla, he pronounced against the empire of Agustín de Iturbide. He rose in revolt again on 21 December 1829, this time from Guadalajara in support of Anastasio Bustamantes Plan de Jalapa in opposition to President Vicente Guerrero, Bustamante took power the following 1 January. In 1832, Paredes was promoted to brigadier general and he entered the political field in 1835. Briefly in December 1838, he was minister of war, in 1839, he helped Jalisco Governor Escobedo suppress the federalist revolt of 18 May. He, Antonio López de Santa Anna and other rebels signed the Plan de Tacubaya against Bustamante on 28 September 1841, Bustamante agreed to resign, Francisco Javier Echeverría was chosen interim president, and three weeks later Santa Anna occupied the presidency. Paredes was not included in the new cabinet, and he felt he had received inadequate reward for his support, a strong follower of Santa Anna before this point, his support now began to cool. Paredes was military governor of Jalisco from 3 November 1841 to 28 January 1843, in October 1843 at Celaya, he withdrew recognition of President Santa Anna. Santa Anna also lost other support, and Congress named José Joaquín de Herrera president on 7 January 1845, when the Mexican–American War appeared imminent in 1845, Paredes was entrusted with the defense of the country. He was sent to San Luis Potosí, there, on 14 December 1845, alleging lack of supplies, he rose in revolt against President Herrera. Instead of marching to the territories, he marched on the capital. On 30 December 1845, General Gabriel Valencia, in charge of the garrison of Mexico City, seized power, Valencia held executive power for three days and then turned it over to Paredes. Paredes entered Mexico City on 2 January 1846, on the following day, he was named president of Mexico by a junta of notables he had assembled from heads of governmental departments. On 4 January, he took the oath of office
