1.
Carnival in Mexico
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Carnival in Mexico is celebrated by about 225 communities in various ways, with the largest and best known modern celebrations occurring in Mazatlan and the city of Veracruz. The largest of this kind is held in Huejotzingo, Puebla, with mock battles based on the Battle of Puebla, other important Carnival variations can be found in Tlaxcala, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Jalisco, Morelos and some parts of Mexico City. Established in Europe in the Middle Ages, Carnival came to Mexico with the Spanish and its popularity during the rest of the colonial period continued because it was one time when normal rules could be broken especially with the use of masks to hide identities from the authorities. In the eighteenth century, the made a concerted effort to suppress the excesses of carnival, banning the wearing of masks, forbidding laypeople to dress as clerics. Celebrations of carnival had been lively and drunken by Indians. The authorities toleration in the colonial period was replaced by a repression of this period of social inversion. Public celebrations of Carnival waned in the 19th century after Mexico’s independence, from the late 19th century to the early 20th, the festival as a major public event has made something of a comeback in areas such as Veracruz, northwestern Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula. The large scale celebrations have mostly become divorced from their religious roots with commercialization in the latter 20th century, the large modern celebrations have been sponsored by city governments as an important social and tourist event. In 2012 Veracruzz allowed visitors to camp on the city’s tourist beaches, however, they are not without problems or controversies. There are occasionally problems with disorderly conduct, the consumption of alcohol. The Veracruz carnival has been criticized by Protestant/Evangelical Christian groups for moral reasons, similarly the 2012 Carnival in Puerto Vallarta caused controversy. Costumes worn by participants vary including dressing as the opposite sex, festivities go on until the early morning hours except on Tuesday, when Carnival ends. Mazatlan has the oldest major modern Carnival tradition in Mexico with a history of over a hundred years starting in 1898, the aim of the modern version of Carnival was to replace this with something more orderly and less dangerous, focusing on a parade with lively costumes. In 1898 a civil committee organized the first citywide event, the first such in Mexico, the event was originally had at the Machado Plaza with procession of decorated cars and bicycles. The first Carnival queen was Wilfrida Farmer in 1900, however, projectiles are still thrown among those in the crowds, generally eggshells filled with confetti and spray cans of foam are also used. The Carnival of Mazatlan is nowhere near as big or famous as those of Rio de Janeiro or New Orleans, visitors to the event are almost all from Mexico despite the fact that it is a tourist area. All are organized by the city around a different theme each year and it is more family-oriented, less sexual than Rio de Janeiro’s and more tranquil than that of New Orleans or Veracruz, but it occupies the city completely during its time. The preferred music is banda but grupera, sinaloense, mariachi, chirrines, Carnival days are official holidays in the city, with parties lasting nearly all night
2.
Holy Week in Mexico
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Holy Week in Mexico is an important religious observance as well as important vacation period. Holy Week proper begins on Palm Sunday, with the used on this day often woven into intricate designs. Holy Saturday is marked by the Burning of Judas, especially in the center and south of the country, several locations have notable observances related to Holy Week including Iztapalapa in Mexico City, Taxco, San Miguel de Allende and San Luis Potosí. Holy Week is one of the most widely celebrated and important religious observances in Mexico, almost all towns and cities in the country have some kind of public observance during a two-week period that starts from Palm Sunday at least to Easter Sunday and can extend into the week after. Mexican television features movies, documentaries and other focused on the religious event and other topics related to the Catholic faith. Like most Mexican Catholic traditions, those related to Holy Week, Holy Week is preceded by Lent and Ash Wednesday, which itself is preceded by Carnival. However, a number of traditions and customs have developed over the centuries, as most Holy Week related events occur outside and in large gatherings, “antojitos” is the most associated with the holiday. Candies are a street food at this time, especially traditional and regional ones made from coconut, tamarind. Holy Week was also the start of the ice cream and flavored ice season. Ice cream fairs are held at this time. Today’s frozen treats include ice cream in tubs, as well as made from both fruit and cream, as well as snow cones called “raspados. ”Another popular refreshment is called “aguas frescas” or sugared drinks made from fruit or other natural flavorings such as tamarind or hibiscus flowers. The reason for the popularity of both frozen desserts and flavored drinks is that spring to summer is generally the warmest part of the year in many parts of Mexico. Just before Holy Week proper, there are two events celebrated in parts of the country. The first is the feast of the Virgin of Sorrows and this occurs the Friday before Good Friday and focuses on the pain and sacrifice of Mary knowing that Jesus had to die to save mankind. This image of the Virgin is usually dressed in purple and altars are set up to her on this day, on the Wednesday before Easter, a mass called the “vespers of darkness” recalls the disciples’ abandonment of Jesus. The altar of the church will have a candelabra with fifteen candles, with one candle extinguished after the singing of a Psalm until only the center candle, representing Jesus, remains lit. Holy Week begins on Palm Sunday, and many communities have special dedicated to the blessing of palm fronds. These fronds are woven into crosses and other designs, sometimes quite intricate
3.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
4.
Mother's Day
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Mothers Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on days in many parts of the world. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Fathers Day, Siblings Day, in the United States, celebration of Mothers Day began in the early 20th century. However, in countries, Mothers Day has become synonymous with these older traditions. The modern holiday of Mothers Day was first celebrated in 1908, St Andrews Methodist Church now holds the International Mothers Day Shrine. Her campaign to make Mothers Day a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, Ann Jarvis had been a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War, and created Mothers Day Work Clubs to address public health issues. In 1908, the US Congress rejected a proposal to make Mothers Day an official holiday, in 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mothers Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers. Although Jarvis was successful in founding Mothers Day, she became resentful of the commercialization of the holiday, by the early 1920s, Hallmark Cards and other companies had started selling Mothers Day cards. Jarvis believed that the companies had misinterpreted and exploited the idea of Mothers Day, as a result, she organized boycotts of Mothers Day, and threatened to issue lawsuits against the companies involved. Jarvis argued that people should appreciate and honor their mothers through handwritten letters expressing their love and gratitude, instead of buying gifts, Jarvis protested at a candy makers convention in Philadelphia in 1923, and at a meeting of American War Mothers in 1925. By this time, carnations had become associated with Mothers Day, and the selling of carnations by the American War Mothers to raise money angered Jarvis, in 1912 Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases second Sunday in May and Mothers Day, and created the Mothers Day International Association. She specifically noted that Mothers should be a singular possessive, for family to honor its own mother. Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece, Mothering Sunday is often referred to as Mothers Day even though it is an unrelated celebration. In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivias Mothers Day is the date of a battle in which women participated, see the International history and tradition section for the complete list. Ex-communist countries usually celebrated International Womens Day instead of Mothers Day, some ex-communist countries, such as Russia, still follow this custom or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mothers Day, but year on year is increasing in status. Mothers Day is celebrated in more than 46 countries throughout the world, on this day, many people pray in churches in honor of mothers, while some gift them presents on this day to express their love
5.
Valentine's Day
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Valentines Day, also called Saint Valentines Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine, is an annual holiday celebrated on February 14. According to legend, during his imprisonment, Saint Valentine healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius, the day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery. In Europe, Saint Valentines Keys are given to lovers as a romantic symbol, Valentines Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards, Saint Valentines Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion, as well as in the Lutheran Church. Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine, the Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome and Valentine of Terni. Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred in 269 and was added to the calendar of saints by Pope Galesius in 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland. Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian in 273 and he is buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni, oruch states that abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe. The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, Saint Valentines head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated. February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentines Day in various Christian denominations, it has, for example, in addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. J. C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century. The same events are found in Bedes Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century. It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person, Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead, because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the jailers daughter and his forty-six member household came to believe in Jesus and were baptized
6.
Mexican War of Independence
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The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, the movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the liberal revolutions of the last part of the 18th century. By that time the elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms, political events in Europe had a decisive effect on events in most of Spanish America. In 1808, King Charles IV and Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of French leader Napoleon Bonaparte, the same year, the ayuntamiento of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy, when it was suppressed, despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of conspirators met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. From 1810 the independence movement went through stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, after the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain, agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain and it called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27,1821, after that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts. After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, after the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810. Elites in Mexico City in the century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy. The crowd was reported to shout, Long live the King, the attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. There was also a conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, lamports conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition
7.
New Year's Day
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New Years Day, also called simply New Years or New Year, is observed on January 1, the first day of the year on the modern Gregorian calendar as well as the Julian calendar. In pre-Christian Rome under the Julian calendar, the day was dedicated to Janus, god of gateways and beginnings, other global New Years Day traditions include making New Years resolutions and calling ones friends and family. Mesopotamia instituted the concept of celebrating the new year in 2000 BC, celebrated new year around the time of the vernal equinox, the early Roman calendar designated March 1 as the new year. The calendar had just ten months, beginning with March and that the new year once began with the month of March is still reflected in some of the names of the months. September through December, our ninth through twelfth months, were positioned as the seventh through tenth months. Roman legend usually credited their second king Numa with the establishment of the months of January and February and these were first placed at the end of the year, but at some point came to be considered the first two months instead. The January Kalends came to be celebrated as the new year at some point after it became the day for the new consuls in 153 BC. Romans had long dated their years by these consulships, rather than sequentially, still, private and religious celebrations around the March new year continued for some time and there is no consensus on the question of the timing for January 1s new status. Once it became the new year, however, it became a time for family gatherings, in AD567, the Council of Tours formally abolished January 1 as the beginning of the year. These days were also astronomically and astrologically significant since, at the time of the Julian reform, March 25 had been understood as the spring equinox and December 25 as the winter solstice. Medieval calendars nonetheless often continued to display the months running from January to December, among the 7th century pagans of Flanders and the Netherlands, it was the custom to exchange gifts on the first day of the new year. This custom was deplored by Saint Eligius, who warned the Flemish and Dutch, make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks. Because of the leap year error in the Julian calendar, the date of Easter had drifted backward since the First Council of Nicaea decided the computation of the date of Easter in 325, by the sixteenth century, the drift from the observed equinox had become unacceptable. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII declared the Gregorian calendar widely used today, the Gregorian calendar reform also restored January 1 as New Years Day. Although most Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian calendar almost immediately, it was gradually adopted among Protestant countries. The British, for example, did not adopt the reformed calendar until 1752, until then, the British Empire – and its American colonies – still celebrated the new year on 25 March. Most nations of Western Europe officially adopted 1 January as New Years Day somewhat before they adopted the Gregorian Calendar, in Tudor England, New Years Day, along with Christmas Day and Twelfth Night, was celebrated as one of three main festivities among the twelve days of Christmastide. There, until the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, Pope Gregory acknowledged 1 January as the beginning of the new year according to his reform of the Catholic Liturgical Calendar
8.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
9.
Francisco I. Madero
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Francisco Indalesio Madero González was a Mexican statesman, writer, and revolutionary who served as the 33rd president of Mexico from 1911 until his assassination in 1913. He was an advocate for justice and democracy. Madero was notable for having challenged Mexican President Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910, born into an extremely wealthy landowning family in northern Mexico, Madero was an unusual politician, who until he ran for president in the 1910 elections, had never held office. In his 1908 book entitled The Presidential Succession in 1910, Madero called on voters to prevent the sixth reelection of Porfirio Díaz and his vision would lay the foundation for a democratic, 20th-century Mexico, but without polarizing the social classes. To that effect, he bankrolled the Anti-Reelectionist Party and urged Mexicans to rise up against Díaz, following the resignation of Díaz from the presidency on 25 May 1911 after the signing of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Madero became the highest political leader of the country. Known as Maderistas, Maderos followers referred to him as the de la Revolución. He was elected president on 15 October 1911 by almost 90% of the vote, sworn into office on 6 November 1911, he became one of Mexicos youngest elected presidents having just turned 38. Despite considerable popularity amongst the people, Maderos administration soon encountered opposition both from more radical revolutionaries and from remnants of the former regime, in February 1913, a military coup took place in the Mexican capital led by General Victoriano Huerta, the military commander of the city. Madero was arrested and a time later assassinated along with his Vice-President, José María Pino Suárez on 22 February 1913. He was born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila, the first son of Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño and he was sickly as a child, and was small in stature as an adult. It is widely believed that Maderos middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, civil War and built a diversified fortune. For many years, the family prospered during Porfirio Díazs regime, Evaristo married twice and had 14 children who lived to adulthood, including Francisco I. Madero, Sr. father of the future president, thus, young Francisco was a member of a huge and powerful northern Mexican family which had long-standing issues with the Díaz regime. Francisco and his brother Gustavo A. Madero were educated at the Jesuit college in Saltillo, instead, his fathers subscription to the magazine Revue Spirite awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism. As a young man, Maderos father sent him to the École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris. During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism and he then attended high school at Culver Academies. Following business school, Madero traveled to the University of California, Berkeley to study agricultural techniques, during his time there, he was influenced by the Theosophist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University. In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of the Madero familys hacienda at San Pedro, well traveled and well educated, he was now in robust health
