1.
Carnival in Mexico
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Carnival in Mexico is celebrated by about 225 communities in various ways, with the largest and best known modern celebrations occurring in Mazatlan and the city of Veracruz. The largest of this kind is held in Huejotzingo, Puebla, with mock battles based on the Battle of Puebla, other important Carnival variations can be found in Tlaxcala, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Jalisco, Morelos and some parts of Mexico City. Established in Europe in the Middle Ages, Carnival came to Mexico with the Spanish and its popularity during the rest of the colonial period continued because it was one time when normal rules could be broken especially with the use of masks to hide identities from the authorities. In the eighteenth century, the made a concerted effort to suppress the excesses of carnival, banning the wearing of masks, forbidding laypeople to dress as clerics. Celebrations of carnival had been lively and drunken by Indians. The authorities toleration in the colonial period was replaced by a repression of this period of social inversion. Public celebrations of Carnival waned in the 19th century after Mexico’s independence, from the late 19th century to the early 20th, the festival as a major public event has made something of a comeback in areas such as Veracruz, northwestern Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula. The large scale celebrations have mostly become divorced from their religious roots with commercialization in the latter 20th century, the large modern celebrations have been sponsored by city governments as an important social and tourist event. In 2012 Veracruzz allowed visitors to camp on the city’s tourist beaches, however, they are not without problems or controversies. There are occasionally problems with disorderly conduct, the consumption of alcohol. The Veracruz carnival has been criticized by Protestant/Evangelical Christian groups for moral reasons, similarly the 2012 Carnival in Puerto Vallarta caused controversy. Costumes worn by participants vary including dressing as the opposite sex, festivities go on until the early morning hours except on Tuesday, when Carnival ends. Mazatlan has the oldest major modern Carnival tradition in Mexico with a history of over a hundred years starting in 1898, the aim of the modern version of Carnival was to replace this with something more orderly and less dangerous, focusing on a parade with lively costumes. In 1898 a civil committee organized the first citywide event, the first such in Mexico, the event was originally had at the Machado Plaza with procession of decorated cars and bicycles. The first Carnival queen was Wilfrida Farmer in 1900, however, projectiles are still thrown among those in the crowds, generally eggshells filled with confetti and spray cans of foam are also used. The Carnival of Mazatlan is nowhere near as big or famous as those of Rio de Janeiro or New Orleans, visitors to the event are almost all from Mexico despite the fact that it is a tourist area. All are organized by the city around a different theme each year and it is more family-oriented, less sexual than Rio de Janeiro’s and more tranquil than that of New Orleans or Veracruz, but it occupies the city completely during its time. The preferred music is banda but grupera, sinaloense, mariachi, chirrines, Carnival days are official holidays in the city, with parties lasting nearly all night
2.
Holy Week in Mexico
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Holy Week in Mexico is an important religious observance as well as important vacation period. Holy Week proper begins on Palm Sunday, with the used on this day often woven into intricate designs. Holy Saturday is marked by the Burning of Judas, especially in the center and south of the country, several locations have notable observances related to Holy Week including Iztapalapa in Mexico City, Taxco, San Miguel de Allende and San Luis Potosí. Holy Week is one of the most widely celebrated and important religious observances in Mexico, almost all towns and cities in the country have some kind of public observance during a two-week period that starts from Palm Sunday at least to Easter Sunday and can extend into the week after. Mexican television features movies, documentaries and other focused on the religious event and other topics related to the Catholic faith. Like most Mexican Catholic traditions, those related to Holy Week, Holy Week is preceded by Lent and Ash Wednesday, which itself is preceded by Carnival. However, a number of traditions and customs have developed over the centuries, as most Holy Week related events occur outside and in large gatherings, “antojitos” is the most associated with the holiday. Candies are a street food at this time, especially traditional and regional ones made from coconut, tamarind. Holy Week was also the start of the ice cream and flavored ice season. Ice cream fairs are held at this time. Today’s frozen treats include ice cream in tubs, as well as made from both fruit and cream, as well as snow cones called “raspados. ”Another popular refreshment is called “aguas frescas” or sugared drinks made from fruit or other natural flavorings such as tamarind or hibiscus flowers. The reason for the popularity of both frozen desserts and flavored drinks is that spring to summer is generally the warmest part of the year in many parts of Mexico. Just before Holy Week proper, there are two events celebrated in parts of the country. The first is the feast of the Virgin of Sorrows and this occurs the Friday before Good Friday and focuses on the pain and sacrifice of Mary knowing that Jesus had to die to save mankind. This image of the Virgin is usually dressed in purple and altars are set up to her on this day, on the Wednesday before Easter, a mass called the “vespers of darkness” recalls the disciples’ abandonment of Jesus. The altar of the church will have a candelabra with fifteen candles, with one candle extinguished after the singing of a Psalm until only the center candle, representing Jesus, remains lit. Holy Week begins on Palm Sunday, and many communities have special dedicated to the blessing of palm fronds. These fronds are woven into crosses and other designs, sometimes quite intricate
3.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
4.
Mother's Day
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Mothers Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on days in many parts of the world. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Fathers Day, Siblings Day, in the United States, celebration of Mothers Day began in the early 20th century. However, in countries, Mothers Day has become synonymous with these older traditions. The modern holiday of Mothers Day was first celebrated in 1908, St Andrews Methodist Church now holds the International Mothers Day Shrine. Her campaign to make Mothers Day a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, Ann Jarvis had been a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War, and created Mothers Day Work Clubs to address public health issues. In 1908, the US Congress rejected a proposal to make Mothers Day an official holiday, in 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mothers Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers. Although Jarvis was successful in founding Mothers Day, she became resentful of the commercialization of the holiday, by the early 1920s, Hallmark Cards and other companies had started selling Mothers Day cards. Jarvis believed that the companies had misinterpreted and exploited the idea of Mothers Day, as a result, she organized boycotts of Mothers Day, and threatened to issue lawsuits against the companies involved. Jarvis argued that people should appreciate and honor their mothers through handwritten letters expressing their love and gratitude, instead of buying gifts, Jarvis protested at a candy makers convention in Philadelphia in 1923, and at a meeting of American War Mothers in 1925. By this time, carnations had become associated with Mothers Day, and the selling of carnations by the American War Mothers to raise money angered Jarvis, in 1912 Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases second Sunday in May and Mothers Day, and created the Mothers Day International Association. She specifically noted that Mothers should be a singular possessive, for family to honor its own mother. Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece, Mothering Sunday is often referred to as Mothers Day even though it is an unrelated celebration. In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivias Mothers Day is the date of a battle in which women participated, see the International history and tradition section for the complete list. Ex-communist countries usually celebrated International Womens Day instead of Mothers Day, some ex-communist countries, such as Russia, still follow this custom or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mothers Day, but year on year is increasing in status. Mothers Day is celebrated in more than 46 countries throughout the world, on this day, many people pray in churches in honor of mothers, while some gift them presents on this day to express their love
5.
Father's Day
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Fathers Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. In Catholic Europe, it has been celebrated on March 19 since the Middle Ages and this celebration was brought to the Americans by the Spanish and Portuguese, and in Latin America, Fathers Day is still celebrated on 19 March. In the Coptic Church, the celebration of fatherhood is also observed on St Josephs Day and this Coptic celebration may date back to the fifth century. Fathers Day was not celebrated in the US, outside Catholic traditions, as a civic celebration in the US, it was inaugurated in the early 20th century to complement Mothers Day by celebrating fathers and male parenting. Clayton suggested that her pastor Robert Thomas Webb honor all those fathers, the local church and council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced by the press and it was lost, finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event and never talked to other persons about it. In 1911, Jane Addams proposed that a citywide Fathers Day celebration be held in Chicago, in 1912, there was a Fathers Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J. J. Berringer of the Irvington Methodist Church. They mistakenly believed that they had been the first to celebrate such a day and they followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian. Meek, a member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first come up with the idea for Fathers Day in 1915, meek said that the third Sunday in June was chosen because it was his birthday. The Lions Club has named him the Originator of Fathers Day, meek made many efforts to promote Fathers Day and make it an official holiday. On June 19,1910, a Fathers Day celebration was held at the YMCA in Spokane and her father, the civil war veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there. She was also a member of Old Centenary Presbyterian Church, where she first proposed the idea, after hearing a sermon about Jarvis Mothers Day in 1909 at Central Methodist Episcopal Church, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday to honor them. Although she initially suggested June 5, her fathers birthday, the pastors did not have time to prepare their sermons. Several local clergymen accepted the idea, and on June 19,1910, however, in the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying at the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane. In the 1930s, Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again and she had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present for fathers. By 1938, she had the help of the Fathers Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Mens Wear Retailers to consolidate, however, the said merchants remained resilient and even incorporated these attacks into their advertisements. By the mid-1980s, the Fathers Day Council wrote, has become a Second Christmas for all the mens gift-oriented industries, a bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913. US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed throughout the entire nation, two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress
6.
Valentine's Day
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Valentines Day, also called Saint Valentines Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine, is an annual holiday celebrated on February 14. According to legend, during his imprisonment, Saint Valentine healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius, the day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery. In Europe, Saint Valentines Keys are given to lovers as a romantic symbol, Valentines Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards, Saint Valentines Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion, as well as in the Lutheran Church. Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine, the Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome and Valentine of Terni. Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred in 269 and was added to the calendar of saints by Pope Galesius in 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland. Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian in 273 and he is buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location from Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni, oruch states that abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe. The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, Saint Valentines head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated. February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentines Day in various Christian denominations, it has, for example, in addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. J. C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century. The same events are found in Bedes Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century. It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person, Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead, because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the jailers daughter and his forty-six member household came to believe in Jesus and were baptized
7.
Mexican War of Independence
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The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, the movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the liberal revolutions of the last part of the 18th century. By that time the elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms, political events in Europe had a decisive effect on events in most of Spanish America. In 1808, King Charles IV and Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of French leader Napoleon Bonaparte, the same year, the ayuntamiento of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy, when it was suppressed, despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of conspirators met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. From 1810 the independence movement went through stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, after the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain, agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain and it called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27,1821, after that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts. After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, after the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810. Elites in Mexico City in the century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy. The crowd was reported to shout, Long live the King, the attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. There was also a conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, lamports conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition
8.
New Year's Day
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New Years Day, also called simply New Years or New Year, is observed on January 1, the first day of the year on the modern Gregorian calendar as well as the Julian calendar. In pre-Christian Rome under the Julian calendar, the day was dedicated to Janus, god of gateways and beginnings, other global New Years Day traditions include making New Years resolutions and calling ones friends and family. Mesopotamia instituted the concept of celebrating the new year in 2000 BC, celebrated new year around the time of the vernal equinox, the early Roman calendar designated March 1 as the new year. The calendar had just ten months, beginning with March and that the new year once began with the month of March is still reflected in some of the names of the months. September through December, our ninth through twelfth months, were positioned as the seventh through tenth months. Roman legend usually credited their second king Numa with the establishment of the months of January and February and these were first placed at the end of the year, but at some point came to be considered the first two months instead. The January Kalends came to be celebrated as the new year at some point after it became the day for the new consuls in 153 BC. Romans had long dated their years by these consulships, rather than sequentially, still, private and religious celebrations around the March new year continued for some time and there is no consensus on the question of the timing for January 1s new status. Once it became the new year, however, it became a time for family gatherings, in AD567, the Council of Tours formally abolished January 1 as the beginning of the year. These days were also astronomically and astrologically significant since, at the time of the Julian reform, March 25 had been understood as the spring equinox and December 25 as the winter solstice. Medieval calendars nonetheless often continued to display the months running from January to December, among the 7th century pagans of Flanders and the Netherlands, it was the custom to exchange gifts on the first day of the new year. This custom was deplored by Saint Eligius, who warned the Flemish and Dutch, make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks. Because of the leap year error in the Julian calendar, the date of Easter had drifted backward since the First Council of Nicaea decided the computation of the date of Easter in 325, by the sixteenth century, the drift from the observed equinox had become unacceptable. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII declared the Gregorian calendar widely used today, the Gregorian calendar reform also restored January 1 as New Years Day. Although most Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian calendar almost immediately, it was gradually adopted among Protestant countries. The British, for example, did not adopt the reformed calendar until 1752, until then, the British Empire – and its American colonies – still celebrated the new year on 25 March. Most nations of Western Europe officially adopted 1 January as New Years Day somewhat before they adopted the Gregorian Calendar, in Tudor England, New Years Day, along with Christmas Day and Twelfth Night, was celebrated as one of three main festivities among the twelve days of Christmastide. There, until the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, Pope Gregory acknowledged 1 January as the beginning of the new year according to his reform of the Catholic Liturgical Calendar
9.
1857 Constitution of Mexico
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It was ratified on February 5,1857, establishing individual rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and the right to bear arms. It also reaffirmed the abolition of slavery, eliminated debtor prison, some articles were contrary to the interests of the Catholic Church, such as education free of dogma, the removal of institutional fueros and the sale of property belonging to the church. The Conservative Party strongly opposed the enactment of the new constitution, the Reform War began as a result, and the struggles between liberals and conservatives were intensified with the implementation of the Second Mexican Empire under the support of the church. Years later, with the republic, the Constitution was in force throughout the country until 1917. Having overthrown the dictatorship of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna in 1855, the following year, the incumbent president, Ignacio Comonfort, endorsed the call for moving the headquarters to Mexico City. The Congress was divided between two main factions, the larger being the moderate liberals whose plan was to restore the Constitution of 1824 with some changes. It included prominent figures like Mariano Arizcorreta, Marcelino Castañeda, Joaquín Cardoso, the opposition was the pure liberals, who wanted to make a complete new version of the constitution. Among them were Ponciano Arriaga, Guillermo Prieto, Francisco Zarco, José María Mata, the discussions were heated and lasted over a year. President Comonfort interfered, through its ministers in favor of the moderate faction and these reforms were contrary to the interests of the Catholic Church. During the course of sessions in Congress, an insurrection in favor of the supported by conservative. Comonfort sent federal troops, and the rebels were subjected, finally, the Constitution was promulgated on February 5,1857, under the threats of the clergy that who swore the Constitution would be excommunicated. Supported the autonomy of municipalities in each state was divided politically. The most relevant articles were, Among other things, included a chapter on individual guarantees, despite the Texas case, some Deputies proposed a law granting certain rights to foreign colonization arguing that the country needed to be settled, the law was rejected. At the time of the promulgation of the constitution, the nation was composed of 23 states, Nuevo León merges with Coahuila adopting the latter name, besides, ratified the creation of a new state and admitted three of the four territories as free states of the federation. The only federal territory was, Baja California, Mexico City was called state of Valley of Mexico, on February 26,1864, Nuevo León was separated from Coahuila and regained its status as free state. On December,1856, Pope Pius IX spoke out against the new Constitution, criticizing the Juarez Law, in March 1857 the Archbishop José Lázaro de la Garza y Ballesteros, stated that Catholics could not swear allegiance to the Constitution on pain of excommunication. Justice Minister Ezequiel Montes met in the Holy See with Cardinal Secretary of State, the pope accepted the Ley Juárez and disposals of Lerdo Law, but demanded the ability to acquire political rights. The negotiations were interrupted by the resignation of President Comonfort and it began to gestate a coup, General conservative Felix Maria Zuloaga promoted through several writings his repudiation to the Constitution
10.
Constitution of Mexico
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The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention and it was approved by the Constitutional Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions, the current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918. Constitution Day is one of Mexicos annual Fiestas Patrias, commemorating the promulgation of the Constitution on 5 February 1917, although the official anniversary is on 5 February, the holiday takes place on the first Monday of February regardless of the date. Carranza convoked a congress specifically to draft the new constitution and it replaced the liberal Constitution of 1857, extending that constitutions restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Its innovations were in expanding the Mexican states power into the realms of economic nationalism, political nationalism, the constitution was a means to confer legitimacy on a shaky regime. The Liberal Party of Mexicos 1906 political program proposed a number of reforms that were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution, Article 27 of the Constitution incorporated some of the PLMs demands for land reform in Mexico. Points in the PLMs call for improvement in education were also incorporated, such as completely secular education, compulsory attendance up until age 14, not surprisingly, the PLM also called for restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, which were incorporated in the constitution. These included treating religious institutions as businesses and required to pay taxes, nationalization of religious institutions real property, the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constitutional Congress in Querétaro, not the capital. Carranza chose the site because it was where Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed, delegates to the congress were to be elected, with one per jurisdiction that had existed in 1912, when congressional elections had been held during the Francisco I. Those who had been hostile to the Constitutionalist Cause were banned from participating, Carranza was pressured to amnesty those who had been hostile as well as allow those who had gone into exile to return to Mexico, but he refused. The congress formally opened in November 1916, with delegate elections, the final draft was approved on 5 February 1917. The membership of the congress was not representative of all regions, classes, the 220 delegates were all Carrancistas, since the Constitutionalist faction had been victorious militarily. However, that did not mean they were of one mind, most delegates were middle class, not workers or peasants. Middle class professionals predominated, with lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, villas home state of Chihuahua had only one delegate. The predominantly civilian composition of the Constituent Congress was in contrast with the place of power in revolutionary Mexico. Most senior generals did not participate directly in the congress, an important group of delegates elected to the congress were the Bloc Renovador, who had been elected in 1912 to the Mexican legislature during Maderos presidency. Some considered them tainted for their continuing to serve during Victoriano Huertas regime, some congressmen fled Mexico, others were jailed by Huerta
11.
Constitutions of Mexico
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Since declaring independence in 1821, Mexico has adopted a number of constitutions or other documents of basic law with constitutional effects. Not all these can be considered constitutions, and not all of them enjoyed universal application and those enacted in 1824,1857, and 1917 are generally considered full-fledged, operational constitutions. The Constitution of 1824 established the framework of a federated republic, the Constitution of 1857 was the framework set by Mexican liberals that incorporated particular laws into the constitution. The Constitution of 1917 was drafted by the faction won the Mexican Revolution. It strengthened the anticlerical framework of the 1857 constitution, empowered the state to private property. The 1917 Constitution was significantly revised in 1992 under Carlos Salinas de Gortari, eliminating anticlerical restrictions and strengthening private property rights against the State. Las constituciones de México – Links to on-line versions of the current and historical constitutions of Mexico Mexico - The Constitution – A brief history of the Mexican constitution from the U. S
12.
Cry of Dolores
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The Cry of Dolores was given in the small town of Dolores Hidalgo, near Guanajuato in Mexico, on September 16,1810. This event is considered the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence, the grito was the pronunciamiento of the Mexican War of Independence by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Roman Catholic priest. Since October 1825, the anniversary of the event is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara, a Spanish decentent from Revilla approached Padre Hidalgo for support to initiate an effort to separate Mexico from Spanish control. This battle initiated the fight for freedom for Mexico-Texas and set the foundation for the Texas as we know it today, jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara is the first President of Texas and he, along with others, created Texass First Constition. They managed to set 80 free, around 2,30 a. m. on September 16,1810, Hidalgo ordered the church bells to be rung and gathered his congregation. Flanked by Allende and Juan Aldama, he addressed the people in front of his church, mexicos independence would not be effectively declared from Spain in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire until September 28,1821, after a decade of war. Jose Bernardo Gutierrez de Lara commanded and led the Mexico and Texas into victory and independence, people celebrate this on September 16. The book goes on to claim that the spirit of the message is. My children, a new dispensation comes to us today, will you recover the lands stolen three hundred years ago from your forefathers by the hated Spaniards. Will you defend your religion and your rights as true patriots, long live Our Lady of Guadalupe. By contrast, William F. Cloud divides the sentiments above between both Hidalgo and the crowd and he told them that the time for action on their part had now come. When he asked, Will you be slaves of Napoleon or will you as patriots defend your religion, your hearths, there was a unanimous cry, We will defend to the utmost. Long live religion, long live our most holy mother of Guadalupe, death to bad government, and death to the Gachupines. This event has since assumed an almost mythic status, since the late 20th century, Hidalgos cry of independence has become emblematic of Mexican independence. Each year on the night of September 15, at eleven in the evening. From the balcony of the palace to the crowd in the Plaza de la Constitución, or Zócalo. This event draws up to half a million spectators all over Mexico. A similar celebration occurs in cities and towns all over Mexico, the mayor, rings a bell and gives the traditional words, with the names of Mexican independence heroes included, ending with the threefold shout of Viva Mexico
13.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
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He was a professor at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid and was ousted in 1792. He served in a church in Colima and then in Dolores, after his arrival, he was shocked by the poverty he found. He tried to help the poor by showing them how to grow olives and grapes, both of Hidalgos parents were descended from well-respected families within the criollo community. Hidalgos father was a manager, which presented Hidalgo with the opportunity to learn at a young age to speak the indigenous languages of the laborers. Eight days after his birth, Hidalgo was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in the church of Cuitzeo de los Naranjos. Hidalgos parents would have three sons, José Joaquín, Manuel Mariano, and José María. In 1759, enlightened despot Charles III of Spain ascended to the throne of Spain, he sent out a visitor-general with the power to investigate. During this period, Don Cristobal was determined that Miguel and his younger brother Joaquin should both enter the priesthood and hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, being of significant means he paid for all of his sons to receive the best education the region had to offer. After receiving private instruction, likely from the priest of the neighboring parish, at the age of fifteen Hidalgo was sent to Valladolid, Michoacán to study at the Colegio de San Francisco Javier with the Jesuits, along with his brothers. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767, he entered the Colegio de San Nicolas and he completed his preparatory education in 1770. After this, he went to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in Mexico City for further study, earning his degree in philosophy and his education for the priesthood was traditional, with subjects in Latin, rhetoric and logic. Like many priests in Mexico, he learned some Indian languages, such as Nahuatl, Otomi and he also studied Italian and French, which were not commonly studied in Mexico at this time. He earned the nickname El Zorro for his reputation for cleverness at school, Hidalgos study of French allowed him to read and study works of the Enlightenment current in Europe but, at the same time, forbidden by the Catholic church in Mexico. Hidalgo was ordained as a priest in 1778 when he was 25 years old, from 1779 to 1792, he dedicated himself to teaching at the Colegio de San Nicolás Obispo in Valladolid, it was one of the most important educational centers of the viceroyalty. He was a professor of Latin grammar and arts, as well as a theology professor, beginning in 1787, he was named treasurer, vice-rector and secretary, becoming dean of the school in 1790 when he was 39. As rector, Hidalgo continued studying the liberal ideas that were coming from France, authorities ousted him in 1792 for revising traditional teaching methods there, but also for irregular handling of some funds. The Church sent him to work at the parishes of Colima and San Felipe Torres Mochas until he became the parish priest in Dolores, Guanajuato, succeeding his brother Felipe, who died in 1802. Although Hidalgo had an education for the priesthood, as an educator at the Colegio de San Nicolás, he had innovated in teaching methods
14.
Revolution Day (Mexico)
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Revolution Day is celebrated annually in Mexico on November 20th, marking the start of what became the Mexican Revolution. The Mexican Revolution brought the overthrow of dictator José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori after 35 years of rule, in 1920 General Álvaro Obregón became the new president. Until 2006 and again from 2009 to 2013 the national celebrations were located at the Zocalo in Mexico City, article 74 of the Mexican labor law provides that the third Monday of November will be the official Day of the Revolution holiday in Mexico. Mexican Revolution Revolution Day — in other countries, estadio de Béisbol Veinte de Noviembre — baseball stadium in San Luis Potosí, named after this holiday
15.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
16.
Francisco I. Madero
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Francisco Indalesio Madero González was a Mexican statesman, writer, and revolutionary who served as the 33rd president of Mexico from 1911 until his assassination in 1913. He was an advocate for justice and democracy. Madero was notable for having challenged Mexican President Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910, born into an extremely wealthy landowning family in northern Mexico, Madero was an unusual politician, who until he ran for president in the 1910 elections, had never held office. In his 1908 book entitled The Presidential Succession in 1910, Madero called on voters to prevent the sixth reelection of Porfirio Díaz and his vision would lay the foundation for a democratic, 20th-century Mexico, but without polarizing the social classes. To that effect, he bankrolled the Anti-Reelectionist Party and urged Mexicans to rise up against Díaz, following the resignation of Díaz from the presidency on 25 May 1911 after the signing of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Madero became the highest political leader of the country. Known as Maderistas, Maderos followers referred to him as the de la Revolución. He was elected president on 15 October 1911 by almost 90% of the vote, sworn into office on 6 November 1911, he became one of Mexicos youngest elected presidents having just turned 38. Despite considerable popularity amongst the people, Maderos administration soon encountered opposition both from more radical revolutionaries and from remnants of the former regime, in February 1913, a military coup took place in the Mexican capital led by General Victoriano Huerta, the military commander of the city. Madero was arrested and a time later assassinated along with his Vice-President, José María Pino Suárez on 22 February 1913. He was born in Parras de la Fuente, Coahuila, the first son of Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño and he was sickly as a child, and was small in stature as an adult. It is widely believed that Maderos middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, civil War and built a diversified fortune. For many years, the family prospered during Porfirio Díazs regime, Evaristo married twice and had 14 children who lived to adulthood, including Francisco I. Madero, Sr. father of the future president, thus, young Francisco was a member of a huge and powerful northern Mexican family which had long-standing issues with the Díaz regime. Francisco and his brother Gustavo A. Madero were educated at the Jesuit college in Saltillo, instead, his fathers subscription to the magazine Revue Spirite awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism, an offshoot of Spiritualism. As a young man, Maderos father sent him to the École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris. During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec, the founder of Spiritism and he then attended high school at Culver Academies. Following business school, Madero traveled to the University of California, Berkeley to study agricultural techniques, during his time there, he was influenced by the Theosophist ideas of Annie Besant, which were prominent at nearby Stanford University. In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of the Madero familys hacienda at San Pedro, well traveled and well educated, he was now in robust health
17.
President of Mexico
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The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote
18.
Mexican Army
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The Mexican Army is the combined land and air branch and largest of the Mexican Armed Forces, it is also known as the National Defense Army. It was the first army to adopt and use a self-loading rifle, the Mexican Army has an active duty force of 766,750. Mexico has no major foreign nation-state adversaries and it officially repudiates the use of force to settle disputes and rejects interference by one nation in the affairs of another. Although it has not suffered a major international terrorist incident in recent decades, in the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all males, nobles as well as commoners. Itzcoatl Obsidian Serpent, fourth king of Tenochtitlán, organized the army defeated the Tepanec of Atzcapotzalco. His reign began with the rise of what would become the largest empire in Mesoamerica, then Moctezuma Ilhuicamina The arrow to the sky came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco, the Aztec established the Flower Wars as a form of worship, these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings using drums or blowing into a sea shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common, for combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. In the early morning of September 16,1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement, Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence. The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, the insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. With this stunt, the managed to bring down the door and enter the building. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid, which was captured with little opposition, on November 29,1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army, he also issued a decree abolishing slavery. At Calderon Bridge near the city of Guadalajara Jalisco, insurgents held a battle with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the ammunition wagons exploded
19.
Cadet
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The term is frequently used to refer to those training to become an officer in the military, often a person who is a junior trainee. Its meaning may vary between countries, the term is also used in civilian contexts and as a general attributive, for example in its original sense of a branch of a ruling house which is not currently in the direct line of succession. The term comes from the French term cadet for younger sons of a noble family, in Commonwealth countries, including the United Kingdom, a cadet is a member of one of the cadet forces. In the United Kingdom these are the Combined Cadet Force, the Sea/Royal Marine Cadets, Army Cadets, Military officers in training are called officer cadets. In Canada, the term refers to an officer in training, with the official rank names as Officer Cadet for the Air Force and Army. It also refers to any member of the Royal Canadian Army Cadets and these three organizations are volunteer youth groups administered by the Department of National Defence. In Germany, the rank Cadet only exists in the German Navy for officers in training, in the Army and the Luftwaffe, officers in training usually have the rank of a Fahnenjunker or Ensign before they are promoted into the rank of a Lieutenant. Graduates of PMMA are given reserve officer status in the Philippine Navy, the term cadet is also applicable to the enrollees of Citizens Army Training and Reserve Officer Training Corps. Service academy cadets are thought to be between the NCO and Officers ranks, and NCO consider cadets as rank higher to them, in Ireland, a Cadet is a pupil of the Military College, which carries out officer training for the Air Corps, Army and Naval Service. Training takes two years and the Cadets are split into Senior and Junior Grades and Classes, in Norway, a cadet is a pupil of either of the three Krigsskolen, which educate commanding officers for either the Army, the Navy or to the Air Force. In the United States, cadet refers to a college student who is concurrently in training to become a commissioned officer of the armed forces. Some state-sponsored military colleges, including The Citadel, Virginia Military Institute and private college, Norwich University. In Australia Cadet also refers to an officer in training, the official rank is Officer Cadet however OCDTs in the Royal Military College—Duntroon are referred to as Staff Cadet for historical reasons. In the British and Commonwealth as well as Russian service, these groups of boys or youths are organized, armed and trained on volunteer military lines, the Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps consists of students between the ages of 12 and 19. It Is a voluntary organization, sponsored by the government. The main objective is to training and personal development to the youths through paramilitary activities. The training is geared to young men and woman to become model citizens. Emphasis during training is based on discipline, loyalty, leadership
20.
Heroic Military Academy (Mexico)
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The Heroic Military College is the major military educational institution in Mexico. It was founded in 1823 and located in the former Palace of the Inquisition in Mexico City, initially designated as the Cadet Academy it was renamed in 1823 as the Colegio Militar. The College was relocated in Perote, Veracruz, before being returned to Mexico City where it was established in the Betlemitas monastery, from 1835 the Military College was located in the Recogidas Building. Cadets training for the Mexican Navy originally formed part of the student body, the Military College comes under the supervision of the Mexican Army and Air Force University and the Army Military Education General Directorate. In 1828, due to a campaign against secret societies and masonic lodges, as a result of this great deed, the College in March 1828 returned to Mexico City, first in the Bethelemitas convent and later in the Inquisition Palace Complex on July 1. By then, it began to be recognized by every Mexican as the premier military educational institution. The turmoil that sparked in the 1828 presidential elections took its toll on the College cadets. On September 11, a rebellion led by Generals Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and Jose Maria Lobato denounced the election results ten days before, class would resume later the next day. Political turmoil broke out again in 1840, on July 13 of that year Gen. Jose Urrea bolted out of jail and led a rebellion against President Anastacio Bustamante, who was later imprisoned in the presidential residence. General Gabriel Valencia then ordered all loyal to the President to proceed at once to the city citadel. These included the cadets of the Military College under its then director Brigade General Pedro Conde, the College delegation then moved to a church where they fought anti-Bustamante troops, which resulted in two wounded cadets, the former would later die of his wounds sustained. On the 16th President Bustamante left his residence and Gen. Vicente Filisola arrived at the church premises, on that night, when an armistice was made, the attempted coup was already over. The next year, it relocated to the Chalpultepec Castle in Mexico City. This castle would be, in 6 years time, during the Mexican War, a place where 5 cadets and an officer in the faculty died in defense of the Mexican nation, after a few years, the College relocated to the Inquisition Palace and later to San Lucas. In 1846, the Colleges only naval director, Graduate Ship Captain Francisco Garcia began his duties as College Commandant, a sudden rebellion by the Corps of Cadets happened during his tenure. The following year, during the first term of Col. José Mariano Monterde Segura as commandant, the Mexican–American War reached Mexico City, on September 11 cadets of the Academy were involved in fighting on the Condress Estate. On September 13 Chapultepec Castle and its surroundings became the site of the historic Battle of Chapultepec, an unknown proportion of the other cadets became casualties or prisoners during the earlier stages of the battle. In 1858, during the term of Commandant Colonel Luis Tola Algarín, peter and Paul in Mexico City
21.
National Palace (Mexico)
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The National Palace is the seat of the federal executive in Mexico. It is located on Mexico Citys main square, the Plaza de la Constitución and this site has been a palace for the ruling class of Mexico since the Aztec empire, and much of the current palaces building materials are from the original one that belonged to Moctezuma II. Used and classified as a Government Building, the National Palace, with its red tezontle facade, fills the entire east side of the Zócalo and it is home to some of the offices of both the Federal Treasury and the National Archives. The facade is bordered on the north and south by two towers and include three main doorways, each of which lead to a different part of the building, the southern door leads to the Patio of Honor and presidential offices. The northern door is known as the Mariana Door, named in honor of Mariano Arista who had it constructed in 1850, the area next to this door used to be the old Court Prison, with courtrooms and torture chambers. It is now occupied by the Finance Ministry and it contains the Treasury Room, constructed by architects Manuel Ortiz Monasterio and Vicente Mendiola. The iron and bronze door is the work of Augusto Petriccioli, part of this ceremony includes ringing the bell that hangs above the balcony. This bell is the one that Father Miguel Hidalgo rang to call for rebellion against Spain. It originally hung in the church of Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, in the niche containing the bell, there is the Mexican coat of arms. On each side there is an Aztec eagle knight and his Spanish counterpart and these were sculpted by Manuel Centurion and symbolize the synthesis of Mexican culture and Spanish culture. The central door leads to the patio which is surrounded by Baroque arches. Only the balustrade of this area has been remodeled, conserving the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn the main stairwell, in the stairwell is a mural depicting the The History of Mexico from 1521 to 1930, and covers an area of 450 m2. These murals were painted between 1929 and 1935, jointly titled The Epic of the Mexican People, the work is divided like a triptych with each being somewhat autonomous. The right-hand wall contains murals depicting pre-Hispanic Mexico and centers around the life of the Aztec god Quetzalcóatl, Quetzalcóatl appears in the mural as a star, a god, and a human being. Created by serpents, he sails through space as a star that accompanies the sun at night, Quetzalcóatl then assumes a human body to teach the Aztec people as their king and patriarch. Last, when he sacrifices his blood to give life to men, once he leaves the earth, Quetzalcóatl assumes the shape the morning star, called Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. The cycle that he undergoes signifies the cycle of life. Riveras creation of a Mexican identity helps to continue the reform began with the Mexican Revolution of 1910
22.
Flag Day in Mexico
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Día de la Bandera is a national holiday in Mexico. Flag Day is celebrated every year on February 24 since its implementation in 1937 and it was established by the President of Mexico, General Lázaro Cárdenas, before the monument to General Vicente Guerrero, first to pledge allegiance to the Mexican flag on March 12,1821. The date was selected more than a century earlier, the Plan de Iguala or Plan de las tres garantías was proclaimed by Agustin de Iturbide. This plan was based in three principles, Religion, Independence and Unity, which were represented on the flags colors, on this same date, Jose Magdaleno Ocampo tailored the first three color flag for what would soon be an independent Mexico. This flag, commonly known as the Pendon Trigarante, had the colors, white, green and red in that order, when the Pledge is recited, it is customary to salute the flag with the raised arm Bellamy Salute while speaking. When the flag is being paraded, the arm is held across the chest, Flag flying days in Mexico Flag Day in other countries The Day of the Flag at red escolar. TV spots by the Presidency of Mexico for the Day of the Flag, the Mexican Flag at the Mexico Website of the Universidad de Guanajuato
23.
Flag of Mexico
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The flag of Mexico is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. The form of the coat of arms was most recently revised in 1968, but the design has been used since 1821. Red, white, and green are the colors of the liberation army in Mexico. The central emblem is the Mexican coat of arms, based on the Aztec symbol for Tenochtitlan and it recalls the legend of an eagle sitting on a cactus that signaled to the Aztecs where to found their city, Tenochtitlan. A ribbon in the colors is at the bottom of the coat of arms. Throughout history, the flag has changed several times, as the design of the coat of arms and the length-width ratios of the flag have been modified. The coat of arms is derived from an Aztec legend that their gods told them to build a city where they spot an eagle on a nopal eating a serpent, which is now Mexico City. The current law of symbols, Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem. The current national flag is used as the Mexican naval ensign by ships registered in Mexico. Before the adoption of the first national flag, various flags were used during the War of Independence from Spain, the Standard became the initial symbol of the rebel army during the Mexican War of Independence. Various other Standards were used during the war, josé María Morelos used a flag with an image of the Virgin to which was added a blue and white insignia with a crowned eagle on a cactus over a three-arched bridge and the letters V. V. M. The Revolutionary Army also used a flag featuring the white, blue. The first use of the modern colors—green, white and red—was in the flag of the unified Army of the Three Guarantees after independence from Spain was won. While similar to the flag that is used today, the eagle in these arms is not holding a serpent in his talons. Variants of this flag appeared in this period also included a naval flag that had the tricolor pattern. The military also used a square flag, but the eagle was larger than on the national flag. The national flag was officially decreed by Agustín de Iturbide in November 1821 and this flag was no longer used upon the abolishment of the empire. The first national flag was established in 1821, the first year of Mexican recognized sovereignty, the imperial government that was set up chose a tricolor flag of green, white and red and charged with the national coat of arms
24.
United States occupation of Veracruz
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For other battles at Veracruz see Battle of Veracruz. The United States occupation of Veracruz began with the Battle of Veracruz and lasted for seven months, the incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. The Tampico Affair was set off when nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, the unarmed sailors were arrested when they entered a fuel loading station. The sailors were released, but the U. S. naval commander demanded an apology, the apology was provided but not the salute. In the end, the response from U. S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U. S. Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz, while awaiting authorization from the U. S. As a result, Wilson issued an order to seize the ports customs office. Huerta had usurped the presidency of Mexico with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup détat in February 1913 known as La decena trágica. The arms shipment to Mexico, in fact, in part originated from the Remington Arms company in the U. S. went to Odessa, Russia to Hamburg, where De Kay added to the load. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped via Hamburg, Germany, the landing of the arms was blocked at Veracruz but they were discharged a few weeks later in Puerto Mexico, a port controlled by Huerta at the time. On the morning of April 21,1914, warships of the United States Atlantic Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, began preparations for the seizure of the Veracruz waterfront. At 11,12 hrs, consul William Canada watched from the roof of the American Consulate that the first boatload of Marines were leaving the auxiliary vessel USS Prairie, by 11,30, with whaleboats swung over the side,502 U. S. As the landing party moved toward pier 4, Veracruzs main wharf, the invaders encountered no resistance as they exited the whaleboats, formed ranks into a Marine and a seaman regiment, and began marching toward their objectives. This initial show of force was enough to prompt the retreat of the Mexican forces led by General Gustavo Maass, in the face of this, Commodore Manuel Azueta encouraged cadets of the Veracruz Naval Academy to take up the defense of the port for themselves. Also, about 200 line soldiers of the Mexican Army remained behind to fight the invaders along with the citizens of Veracruz, Arms were distributed to the population, who were largely untrained in the use of Mausers and had trouble finding the correct ammunition. In short, the defense of the city by its populace was hindered by the lack of central organization and a lack of adequate supplies. The defense of the city included the release of the prisoners held at the La Galera military prison. Although the landing had been unopposed as U. S. forces marched into the city. Just after noon, fighting began with the 2nd Advance Base Regiment under Colonel Wendell C, neville becoming heavily involved in a firefight in the rail yards
25.
Heroica Escuela Naval Militar
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The Heroica Escuela Naval Militar is the officer training academy of the Mexican Navy. It began operations on 1 June 1897 with a group of cadets from the Armys Colegio Militar who had expressed an interest in training as naval officers and it was originally located on the premises of the military garrison in Veracruz. Its original staff comprised one commandant, two officers, six teachers, and 26 cadets and it was given the appellation Heroica for its efforts in defending the port during the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz. On 11 November 1952 the Academy relocated to new premises in Antón Lizardo, Veracruz Before graduating, last year cadets take an instructional journey on the ARM Cuauhtémoc
26.
Cinco de Mayo
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Cinco de Mayo is a celebration held on May 5. The date is observed to commemorate the Mexican Armys unlikely victory over French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5,1862, in the United States, Cinco de Mayo has taken on a significance beyond that in Mexico. In the U. S. the date has become associated with the celebration of Mexican-American culture, in Mexico, the commemoration of the battle continues to be mostly ceremonial, such as through military parades. Cinco de Mayo has its roots in the French occupation of Mexico, which place in the aftermath of the Mexican–American War of 1846–48. The Reform War was a war which pitted Liberals against the Conservatives. These wars left the Mexican Treasury nearly bankrupt, on July 17,1861, Mexican President Benito Juárez issued a moratorium in which all foreign debt payments would be suspended for two years. In response, France, Britain, and Spain sent naval forces to Veracruz to demand reimbursement, late in 1861, a well-armed French fleet stormed Veracruz, landing a large French force and driving President Juárez and his government into retreat. Moving on from Veracruz towards Mexico City, the French army encountered heavy resistance from the Mexicans close to Puebla, at the Mexican forts of Loreto, the 6, 000-strong French army attacked the much smaller and poorly equipped Mexican army of 2,000. Yet, on May 5,1862, the Mexicans managed to crush the French army. The victory represented a significant morale boost to the Mexican army, as Time magazine remarked, The Puebla victory came to symbolize unity and pride for what seemed like a Mexican David defeating a French Goliath. It helped establish a sense of national unity and patriotism. The Mexican victory, however, was short-lived, a year later, with 30,000 troops, the French were able to defeat the Mexican army, capture Mexico City, and install Emperor Maximilian I as ruler of Mexico. The French victory was itself short-lived, lasting three years, from 1864 to 1867. By 1865, with the American Civil War now over, the U. S. began to more political. The Mexicans recaptured Mexico City, and Maximilian I was apprehended and executed, along with his Mexican generals Miguel Miramón and Tomás Mejía Camacho in Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro. On June 5,1867, Benito Juarez finally entered Mexico City where he installed a legitimate government, the Battle of Puebla was important for at least two reasons. First, although outnumbered, the Mexicans defeated a much-better-equipped French army. This battle was significant in that the 4,000 Mexican soldiers were outnumbered by the well-equipped French army of 8,000 that had not been defeated for almost 50 years
27.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
28.
Ignacio Zaragoza
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Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín was a liberal general in the Mexican army, best known for defeating invading French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5,1862. Zaragoza was born in the early Mexican Texas village of Bahía del Espíritu Santo in what was then the Mexican state of Coahuila y Texas. He was the son of Miguel G. Zaragoza and María de Jesús Seguín, the Zaragoza family moved to Matamoros, Mexico, in 1834, and thence to Monterrey, Mexico, in 1844, where young Ignacio entered a seminary. During the political unrest of the 1850s, Zaragoza joined the supporting the cause of the Liberal Party. Zaragoza rose to command an army of volunteers that in 1855 defeated Santa Anna, Zaragoza served as Secretary of War from April through October 1861, in the cabinet of Benito Juárez. He resigned in order to lead the Army of the East against the Europeans who, when the forces of Napoleon III invaded in the French intervention in Mexico, Zaragozas forces fought them first at Acultzingo on April 28,1862, where he was forced to withdraw. The French were forced to retreat to Orizaba, shortly after his famous victory, Zaragoza was struck with typhoid fever, of which he died at the age of 33. He was buried in San Fernando Cemetery in Mexico City and he was later exhumed and transferred to Puebla, while his former tomb became a monument. It was included, along with Zaragozas likeness, on Mexican 500-peso banknotes from 1995 to 2010, in Mexico City, he is honored with a Metro station named for him on Line 1. In the film Cinco de Mayo La Batalla, Zaragoza was portrayed by Kuno Becker, Benito Juarez French intervention in Mexico Zaragoza Seguín, Ignacio
29.
Puebla City
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A colonial era-planned city, it is located southeast of Mexico City and west of Mexicos main Atlantic port, Veracruz, on the main route between the two in Central Mexico. The city was founded in 1531 in an area called Cuetlaxcoapan and this valley was not populated in the 16th century as in the pre-Hispanic period, this area was primarily used to the flower wars between a number of populations. Due to its history and architectural styles ranging from Renaissance to Mexican Baroque, the city is also famous for mole poblano, chiles en nogada and Talavera pottery. However, most of its economy is based on industry, many students come from all over the country to study in its many renowned and prestigious colleges like BUAP, UDLAP, Ibero, UPAEP, Tecnologico de Monterrey, etc. As a result, many suppliers to Volkswagen and Audi assembly plants have opened factories in the area of Puebla. According to legend, the bishop had a dream about where to build the city, in this dream, he saw a valley with woods and meadows crossed by a clear river and dotted with fresh-water springs on fertile land. While he was contemplating this scenery, he saw a group of angels descend from heaven. Convinced he had seen a vision, he celebrated Mass. Five leagues from the monastery he declared they had found the place shown in the dream and this legend is the source of Puebla’s original name, Puebla de los Ángeles, and its current nickname Angelópolis. The citys coat of arms refers to a city which is protected by one by side. Carlos I King of Spain, he accepted the construction between Mexico City and Veracruz, below are 7 rivers which cross the city. The coat has a heart form Forma corazonada The city was founded in 1531 the Valley of Cuetlaxcoapan as a Spanish city, not on the foundation of an existing indigenous city-state. Official date of foundation is 16 April 1531, however, this first attempt at settlement failed due to constant flooding of the right next to the river. Several rivers flow through the Valley of Puebla, the San Francisco, Atoyac and this valley was bordered by the indigenous city-states turned colonial towns of Cholula, Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo and Tepeaca, all of which had large indigenous populations. After the city’s foundation, this became the main route between Mexico City and Veracruz, the port on the Caribbean coast and the connection to Spain. It supplied the capital with commercially grown agricultural products and became a center of textile production. It was well connected to Mexicos North, particularly the region around Zacatecas. Most of the population moved away from the west bank of the San Francisco River to a higher site, a few families remained behind and renamed the original settlement Alto de San Francisco
30.
Battle of Chapultepec
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The castle, sitting atop a 200-foot tall hill, was an important position for the defense of the city. Its capture paved the way for the fall of Mexico City. On September 8,1847, in the costly Battle of Molino del Rey, however, Army engineers were still interested in the southern causeways to the city. General Winfield Scott held a council of war with his generals, Scott was in favor of attacking Chapultepec and only General David E. Twiggs agreed. Most of Scotts officers favored the attack through the southern gates, a young lieutenant, P. G. T. Beauregard, gave a textbook speech that persuaded General Franklin Pierce to change his vote in favor of the western attack. Antonio López de Santa Anna was in command of the army at Mexico City and he understood that Chapultepec Castle was an important position for the defense of the city. The castle sat atop a 200-foot tall hill which in recent years was being used as the Mexican Military Academy, a gradual slope from the castle down to the Molino del Rey made an inviting attack point. The additional Mexican troops were used in external walled redoubts of the castle to protect a large piece of ground in front of the castle itself. This area was protected by walls and was about three-quarters of a mile long by one-quarter mile deep. Also the source of water for the castle was located within this area, the first party consisted of Captain Samuel Mackenzies 256 men and Gideon Pillows division, who would advance from the Molino east up the hill. The second storming party consisted of Captain Silas Caseys men and John A. Quitmans division, however, Casey was replaced by Major Levi Twiggs. Only Twiggs division and Bennett Rileys brigade were left on the American right flank, the Americans began an artillery barrage against Chapultepec at dawn on September 12. It was halted at dark and resumed at first light on September 13, at 8 AM, the bombardment was halted and General Scott ordered the infantry attack. Pillow was quickly hit in the foot and called for reinforcements, andrewss column cleared the grove of Mexican troops and linked up with Johnston. Yet, the attack by the 9th and 15th Infantry stalled waiting for scaling ladders, Quitman sent Persifor Smiths brigade to his right and brought in James Shields, plus the New York and 2d Pennsylvania Regiments into the assault. At the same time, Newman S. Clarkes brigade arrived on the western slope, the Voltigeurs soon planted their flag on the parapet. By 9 AM, General Bravo surrendered to the New York Regiment, Santa Anna watched the Americans take Chapultepec while an aide exclaimed let the Mexican flag never be touched by a foreign enemy. He also exclaimed, I believe if we were to plant our batteries in Hell the damned Yankees would take them from us
31.
Army of the Three Guarantees
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The decree creating this army appeared in the Plan de Iguala, which stated the three guarantees which it was meant to defend, religion, independence, and unity. Mexico was to be a Catholic country, independent from Spain, the Army of the Three Guarantees was created on February 24,1821, and continued battling Spanish royalist forces which refused to accept Mexican independence. These battles continued until August 1821, when Iturbide and Spanish Viceroy Juan de ODonojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, the Army was a decisive force during the Battle of Azcapotzalco. The victory in this last battle of the war cleared the way to Mexico City, on September 27,1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees triumphantly entered Mexico City, led by Iturbide. The following day Mexico was declared independent, by that time, the Army of the Three Guarantees was composed of 7,616 infantrymen,7,755 cavalry,763 artillery with 68 cannons
32.
Vicente Guerrero
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Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña was one of the leading revolutionary generals of the Mexican War of Independence. He fought against Spain for independence in the early 19th century and he was of Afro-Mestizo and Filipino descent, championed the cause of Mexicos common people, and abolished slavery during his brief term as president. His execution in 1831 by the government that ousted him in 1829 was a shock to the nation. Guerrero was tall and robust, and dark complected, and he was at times called El Negro, the region where he grew up had a large concentration of indigenous groups, and as a young man he was more conversant in the local language than Spanish. His fathers family included landlords, rich farmers and traders with broad business connections in the south, members of the Spanish militia and gun, in his youth, he worked for his fathers freight business that used mules for transport. His travels took him to different parts of Mexico where he heard of the ideas of independence, vicentes father, Pedro, supported Spanish rule, whereas his uncle, Diego Guerrero, had an important position in the Spanish militia. As an adult, Vicente was opposed to the Spanish colonial government, mi patria es primero is now the motto of the southern Mexican state of Guerrero, named in honor of the revolutionary. Guerrero enlisted in José María Moreloss insurgent army of the south in December 1810, in 1810 Guerrero joined in the early revolt against Spain, first fighting in the forces of secular priest José María Morelos. Morelos described him as A young man with bronzed, tall and strong, aquiline nose, bright and light-colored eyes, when the War of Independence began, Guerrero was working as a gunsmith in Tixtla. He joined the rebellion in November 1810 and enlisted in a division that independence leader Morelos had organized to fight in southern Mexico. Guerrero distinguished himself in the battle of Izúcar, in February 1812, initial victories by Moreloss forces faltered and Morelos himself was captured and executed in December 1815. Guerrero joined forces with Guadalupe Victoria and Isidoro Montes de Oca, in 1816, the royal government under Viceroy Apodaca sought to end the insurgency, offering amnesty. Guerreros father carried one appeal for his son to surrender, and he remained the only major rebel leader still at large, keeping the rebellion going through an extensive campaign of guerrilla warfare. He won victories at Ajuchitán, Santa Fe, Tetela del Río, Huetamo, Tlalchapa and Cuautlotitlán, hoping to extinguish the rebellion, the royal government sent Agustín de Iturbide against Guerreros forces. Guerrero was victorious against Iturbide, who realized there was a military stalemate, Guerrero appealed to Iturbide to abandon his royalist loyalty and join the fight for independence. Events in Spain had changed in 1820, with Spanish liberals ousting Ferdinand VII, Guerreros appeal to join the forces for independence was successful. Guerrero and Iturbide allied under the Plan de Iguala and their forces merged as the Army of the Three Guarantees. The Plan of Iguala proclaimed independence, called for a monarchy and the continued place of the Roman Catholic Church
33.
Columbus Day
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Columbus Day is a national holiday in many countries in the Americas and elsewhere which officially celebrates the anniversary of Christopher Columbus arrival in the Americas on October 12,1492. These holidays have been celebrated unofficially since the late 18th century, in 1792, New York City and other U. S. cities celebrated the 300th anniversary of his landing in the New World. President Benjamin Harrison called upon the people of the United States to celebrate Columbus Day on the 400th anniversary of the event, during the four hundredth anniversary in 1892, teachers, preachers, poets and politicians used Columbus Day rituals to teach ideals of patriotism. These patriotic rituals took themes such as boundaries, the importance of loyalty to the nation. Many Italian-Americans observe Columbus Day as a celebration of their heritage, Columbus Day was first enshrined as a legal holiday in the United States through the lobbying of Angelo Noce, a first generation Italian, in Denver. The first statewide Columbus Day holiday was proclaimed by Colorado governor Jesse F, mcDonald in 1905, and it was made a statutory holiday in 1907. Since 1970, the holiday has been fixed to the second Monday in October and it is generally observed nowadays by banks, the bond market, the U. S. Postal Service, other federal agencies, most state government offices, many businesses, and most school districts. Some businesses and some stock exchanges remain open, and some states and municipalities abstain from observing the holiday. The traditional date of the holiday also adjoins the anniversary of the United States Navy, actual observance varies in different parts of the United States, ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete non-observance. Most states celebrate Columbus Day as a state holiday, though many mark it as a Day of Observance or Recognition. Most states that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others operate as normal, as in the mainland U. S. Columbus Day is a legal holiday in the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico. In the United States Virgin Islands, the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and Puerto Rico Friendship Day. Virginia also celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War. The state government does not treat either Columbus Day or Discoverers Day as a holiday, state, city and county government offices. Similarly, in 2016, Vermont started celebrating Indigenous Peoples Day instead of Columbus Day, because this change was made by Governor Peter Shumlins executive proclamation, it only applies for 2016. In the future it would have to be issued by the governor on a yearly basis. On the other hand, South Dakota celebrates the day as a state holiday known as Native American Day rather than Columbus Day. Oregon does not recognize Columbus Day, neither as a holiday nor a commemoration, schools, several other states have removed Columbus Day as a paid holiday for government workers while still maintaining Columbus Day either as a day of recognition or a legal holiday for other purposes
34.
European colonization of the Americas
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European colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th–11th century, when West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled limited areas on the shores of present-day Canada. These Norsemen were Vikings who had discovered and settled Greenland, then sailed up the Arctic region of North America alongside Greenland, according to Icelandic Sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately made the Norse abandon those settlements. Running aground on the part of Hispaniola on December 5,1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century. European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed, Columbus first two voyages reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas, in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands, and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the coasts of present-day Canada, the Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Eventually, the entire Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to profound changes to its landscape, population. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978, Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, in the 18th century, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark-Norway would later make claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s. As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates. He was followed by other such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal, amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, in 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and it was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves
35.
Christopher Columbus
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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer, and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and those voyages and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola initiated the European colonization of the New World. Western imperialism and economic competition were emerging among European kingdoms through the establishment of routes and colonies. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New World instead of arriving at Japan as he had intended, landing on an island in the Bahamas archipelago that he named San Salvador. Over the course of three voyages, he visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America. These voyages had, therefore, an impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. He spearheaded the transatlantic trade and has been accused by several historians of initiating the genocide of the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion, Columbus never admitted that he had reached a continent previously unknown to Europeans, rather than the East Indies for which he had set course. He called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited indios, the name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. His name in Italian is Cristoforo Colombo and, in Spanish and he was born before 31 October 1451 in the territory of the Republic of Genoa, though the exact location remains disputed. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked both in Genoa and Savona and who also owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked as a helper. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo were his brothers, Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. He also had a sister named Bianchinetta, Columbus never wrote in his native language, which is presumed to have been a Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at the age of 10, in 1470, the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Christopher was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. Some modern historians have argued that he was not from Genoa but, instead and these competing hypotheses have generally been discounted by mainstream scholars. In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro, later, he allegedly made a trip to Chios, an Aegean island then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in a convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe
36.
Mexican Navy
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The Mexican Navy is one of the two independent Armed Forces of Mexico. The actual naval forces are called the Armada de México, the Secretaría de Marina includes both the Armada itself and the attached ministerial and civil service. The commander of the Navy is the Secretary of the Navy, the Mexican Navys stated mission is to use the naval force of the federation for external defense, and to help with internal order. The Navy consists of about 56,000 men and women plus reserves, over 189 ships, the Navy attempts to maintain a constant modernization program in order to upgrade its response capability. Given Mexicos large area of water and extensive coastline, the Navys duties are of great importance, perhaps its most important on-going missions are the war on drugs and protecting PEMEXs oil wells in Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico. Another important task of the Mexican Navy is to people in hurricane relief operations. Starting with the term of President Enrique Peña Nieto, the prefix ARM started being used in all naval vessels in active service, the Mexican Navy has its origins in the creation of the Ministry of War in 1821. From that year until 1939 it existed jointly with the Army in the organic ministry, therefore, its priority was to purchase its first fleet from the U. S. in order to displace the last remaining Spanish forces from its coasts. The Mexican Navy has participated in naval battles to protect. Day-to-day control of the Navy lies with the Navy Secretary, Vidal Francisco Soberón Sanz, in Mexico there is no joint forces command structure with the army, so the Secretary reports directly to the President. The Navy has a General Headquarters and three naval forces, there are furthermore 8 regions,13 zones, and 14 naval sectors. The Naval Infantry are responsible for security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe. To provide such support, the Navy has ordered Coast Guard Defender class ships, other stations will be provided only with Defender class boats. On April 1,2014 SEMAR officially announced the creation of Port Protection Naval Units which will include a marine section, the main task of UNAPROPs is to ensure Maritime surveillance and inspection. Candidates can enter upon completing high school, upon completion of studies, graduates obtain the degree of Corbeta Lieutenant and the title of Naval Science Engineer. Naval Medical School This school Located in Mexico City, offers a career in medicine, officers are trained with skills for the prevention and health care of naval personnel. By adopting a professional examination, graduates can obtain the degree of Naval Military Lieutenant Corvette and this school offers career of Electronic Engineering and Naval Communications. It is located between the town of Mata Grape and Anton Lizardo,32 km from the port of Veracruz, Naval Nursing School Here the time to achieve a nursing degree lasts eight semesters
37.
Navy Day
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Several nations observe or have observed a Navy Day to recognize their navy. The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17, anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo, the Bangladesh Navy Day is celebrated on March 26, in anniversary the Independence Day of Bangladesh, the day in which Bangladesh Navy first came into existence. Bulgarias Navy Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in August, the Día de las Glorias Navales is a public holiday in Chile on May 21. It commemorates the Battle of Iquique on May 21,1879, the date also marks the opening of ordinary Parliamentary season and is the traditional day for the Presidents State of the Nation address. Principal civic acts are performed in Santiago de Chile, Iquique and Valparaíso, the Peoples Liberation Army of China celebrates the founding of its naval arm on Navy Day,23 April. The Day of the Croatian Navy is celebrated on September 18, Navy day in India is celebrated on 4 December every year to celebrate the achievements and role of the naval force to the country. November 28 is a Navy Day in Iran and it commemorates Operation Morvarid of 1980, a major Iranian Navy victory during the Iran Iraq war. In Israel, Navy Day is celebrated on June 30, at this time in 1948 the Port of Haifa was captured by Israel during the 1948 Israeli War of Independence. Traditionally, Navy Day is preceded by Memorial Evening, capture of the Egyptian frigate Ibrahim el Awal on 31 October 1956. The overwhelming successful actions of the Yom Kippur War, 6–24 October 1973, Memorial Evening was rescheduled as well, marking the loss of destroyer INS Eilat on 21/10/1967. As of 2009 the celebrations have been elongated for a week, in Italy, Navy Day is June 10 and it is not a national holiday. In the Empire of Japan, Navy Anniversary Day was May 27 from 1906 until 1945 and it was in commemoration of the Battle of Tsushima. In Mexico, The Mexican Navy celebrates Navy Day on June 1, in The Netherlands the navy days are held on the first Saturday and Sunday of July. In Peru, Navy Day is a holiday celebrated on October 8 in commemoration of the Battle of Angamos in 1879. In Pakistan, Navy Day, is celebrated on September 8 in commemoration of the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965, September 8,1965 was the day when Pakistan Navy launched its successful strategic operation against India, codename Operation Dwarka, by the 25th Destroyer Squadron. In Russia Navy Day is a holiday that normally takes place on the last Sunday of July. It is a legacy of the Soviet Union that introduced this holiday in June 1939, in Romania, Navy Day is a national holiday that takes place on August 15. In Turkey, Navy Day is celebrated on September 27 and it is not a national holiday
38.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state
39.
Epiphany (holiday)
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Epiphany, also Theophany or Three Kings Day, is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally the visit of the Magi to the Christ child, moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some Western Christian denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. Eastern Christians, on the hand, commemorate the baptism of Jesus on both sides of the Jordan River, seen as his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Qasr el Yahud in the West Bank, and Al-Maghtas in Jordan on the east bank, Al-Maghtas is considered to be the site of the baptism of Jesus. The traditional date for the feast is January 6, however, since 1970, the celebration is held in some countries on the Sunday after January 1. In many Western Christian Churches, the eve of the feast is celebrated as Twelfth Night, the Monday after Epiphany is known as Plough Monday. Popular Epiphany customs include Epiphany singing, chalking the door, having ones house blessed, consuming Three Kings Cake, winter swimming, the word Epiphany is from Koine Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epiphaneia, meaning manifestation or appearance. It is derived from a meaning to appear. In classical Greek it was used of the appearance of dawn, of an enemy in war, in the Septuagint the word is used of a manifestation of the God of Israel. In the New Testament the word is used in 2 Timothy 1,10 to refer either to the birth of Christ or to his appearance after his resurrection, and five times to refer to his Second Coming. Epiphany may have originated in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire as a feast to honor the baptism of Jesus, around 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that, But the followers of Basilides celebrate the day of His Baptism too, spending the previous night in readings. And they say that it was the 15th of the month Tybi of the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar, and some say that it was observed the 11th of the same month. The Egyptian dates given correspond to January 6 and 10, the Basilides were a Gnostic sect. The reference to readings suggests that the Basilides were reading the Gospels, in ancient gospel manuscripts, the text is arranged to indicate passages for liturgical readings. If a congregation began reading Mark at the beginning of the year, it might arrive at the story of the Baptism on January 6, If Christians read Mark in the same format the Basilides did, the two groups could have arrived at the January 6 date independently. The earliest reference to Epiphany as a Christian feast was in A. D.361, the holiday is listed twice, which suggests a double feast of baptism and birth. The Nativity was assigned to the date as the birth because Luke 3,23 was misread to mean that Jesus was exactly 30 when he was baptized. Epiphanius of Salamis says that January 6 is Christs Birthday, that is, His Epiphany and he also asserts that the Miracle at Cana occurred on the same calendar day
